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When to Use the Preterite

The preterite presents past actions as completed, with a clear beginning or end.
  • Single completed actions: Ayer compré un libro (Yesterday I bought a book)
  • Actions with a specific time frame or number of times: Viví en México dos años
  • A sequence of events: Me levanté, me duché y salí
  • An action that interrupts another: Estaba leyendo cuando sonó el teléfono
  • Trigger words: ayer, anoche, el año pasado, de repente, una vez

When to Use the Imperfect

The imperfect describes ongoing, habitual or background situations in the past.
  • Habitual actions: De niño, jugaba al fútbol todos los días (I used to play)
  • Background description: Hacía sol y los pájaros cantaban
  • Time, age and ongoing states: Eran las tres. Tenía diez años
  • Actions in progress: Mientras yo cocinaba, él limpiaba
  • Trigger words: siempre, a menudo, todos los días, mientras, de niño

Verbs That Change Meaning

Some verbs mean something different in the preterite.
  • Conocer: conocí = I met (for the first time); conocía = I knew
  • Saber: supe = I found out; sabía = I knew
  • Querer: quise = I tried; no quise = I refused; quería = I wanted
  • Poder: pude = I managed to; no pude = I failed to; podía = I was able to
  • Tener: tuve = I got/received; tenía = I had
'Used to' is always imperfect, never preterite.
Duration alone doesn't force the imperfect: 'Viví allí cinco años' (a closed period) is preterite.
Don't translate 'was/were' automatically as imperfect of estar; ask whether the action was completed.

The Simple Future

The future tense adds endings to the whole infinitive.
  • Endings for all verbs: -é, -ás, -á, -emos, -éis, -án (hablaré, comerás, vivirá)
  • Irregular stems: tener → tendr-, salir → saldr-, venir → vendr-, poner → pondr-, poder → podr-, saber → sabr-, hacer → har-, decir → dir-, querer → querr-, haber → habr-
  • Ir a + infinitive is also common for near future: Voy a estudiar
  • Future of probability: ¿Dónde estará Ana? (I wonder where Ana is)
  • Hay → habrá (there will be)

The Conditional

The conditional expresses what would happen.
  • Endings on the infinitive: -ía, -ías, -ía, -íamos, -íais, -ían (hablaría, comerías)
  • It uses the same irregular stems as the future: tendría, haría, diría, podría
  • Polite requests: ¿Podría ayudarme? (Could you help me?)
  • Future in the past: Dijo que vendría (He said he would come)
  • Probability in the past: Serían las diez (It was probably ten)

Si Clauses

Conditional sentences pair specific tenses.
  • Real/likely: Si + present, future: Si estudio, aprobaré
  • Hypothetical: Si + imperfect subjunctive, conditional: Si tuviera dinero, viajaría
  • The si clause can come first or second: Viajaría si tuviera dinero
  • Never use the future or conditional directly after si meaning 'if'
  • Deber in the conditional gives advice: Deberías dormir más
Don't say 'Si tendría dinero'. It should be 'Si tuviera dinero'.
Hacer → haré (not haceré); decir → diré (not deciré).
The conditional endings look like -er/-ir imperfect endings but attach to the infinitive.

Forming the Present Perfect

The present perfect uses haber plus a past participle.
  • Haber: he, has, ha, hemos, habéis, han
  • Regular participles: -ar → -ado (hablado); -er/-ir → -ido (comido, vivido)
  • Irregular participles: abrir → abierto, decir → dicho, escribir → escrito, hacer → hecho, morir → muerto, poner → puesto, romper → roto, ver → visto, volver → vuelto, cubrir → cubierto
  • Nothing goes between haber and the participle; pronouns go before haber: Lo he visto
  • Participles with haber never change for gender or number: Ellas han llegado

When to Use It

The present perfect links past actions to the present.
  • Actions in a time period that isn't finished: Este año he leído cinco libros
  • Life experiences: ¿Has viajado a Perú?
  • Recent actions with present relevance: Ya he terminado la tarea
  • Common words: ya (already), todavía no / aún no (not yet), alguna vez (ever), nunca
  • Usage varies by region: Spain uses it more for today's events; much of Latin America prefers the preterite

Past Participles as Adjectives

Participles can also describe nouns.
  • With estar, the participle describes a resulting state: La puerta está abierta
  • As adjectives, participles agree in gender and number: las ventanas cerradas
  • Compare: He cerrado las ventanas (action) vs. Las ventanas están cerradas (state)
  • The pluperfect uses the imperfect of haber: había comido (I had eaten)
  • Acabar de + infinitive means 'to have just': Acabo de comer
Don't put pronouns between haber and the participle: 'Lo he hecho', not 'He lo hecho'.
Hecho, not 'hacido'; visto, not 'veído'.
'Han llegadas' is wrong; after haber the participle is invariable.

Tú Commands

Informal commands have different affirmative and negative forms.
  • Affirmative tú = él/ella present form: Habla, Come, Escribe
  • Irregular affirmative tú: di, haz, ve, pon, sal, sé, ten, ven
  • Negative tú = present subjunctive tú form: No hables, No comas, No salgas
  • Pronouns attach to affirmative commands (Dímelo) and go before negative ones (No me lo digas)
  • Add an accent when attaching pronouns to keep the stress: Cómpralo

Formal and Nosotros Commands

Usted, ustedes and nosotros commands come from the subjunctive.
  • Usted/ustedes: Hable(n), Coma(n), Escriba(n); negative just adds no
  • Irregular: vaya(n), sea(n), esté(n), dé/den, sepa(n)
  • Nosotros (let's): Hablemos, Comamos; ir → Vamos (affirmative), No vayamos (negative)
  • Reflexive nosotros drops the -s before nos: Sentémonos, Levantémonos
  • Spelling changes: -car → -que (busque), -gar → -gue (llegue), -zar → -ce (empiece)

Using Commands Politely

Commands can sound abrupt; Spanish has softer options.
  • Use usted with strangers, elders and in formal settings
  • Add por favor or use the conditional: ¿Podría pasarme la sal?
  • Vosotros commands (used in Spain): hablad, comed; the negative uses the subjunctive: no habléis
  • Infinitives are used for written instructions: No fumar
  • Double object pronouns: le/les become se before lo/la: Dáselo
Negative tú isn't just 'no' + affirmative: 'No habla' is wrong; it's 'No hables'.
Ve (go) and ve (see) look the same; context decides.
Le/les + lo/la becomes se lo/se la, never 'le lo'.

Forming the Present Subjunctive

Start from the yo form of the present, drop -o, and add 'opposite' endings.
  • -ar verbs take -e endings: hable, hables, hable, hablemos, habléis, hablen
  • -er/-ir verbs take -a endings: coma, comas…; viva, vivas…
  • Yo-form irregulars carry over: tener → tenga, hacer → haga, conocer → conozca
  • Irregulars (DISHES): dar (dé), ir (vaya), ser (sea), haber (haya), estar (esté), saber (sepa)
  • Stem changes follow the present pattern; -ir stem-changers also change in nosotros/vosotros: durmamos, pidamos

WEIRDO Triggers

The subjunctive appears in a dependent clause after certain triggers, usually with a change of subject.
  • Wishes: Quiero que vengas
  • Emotions: Me alegra que estés aquí
  • Impersonal expressions: Es importante que estudies
  • Recommendations: Te recomiendo que duermas más
  • Doubt/denial and Ojalá: Dudo que llueva; No creo que sea verdad; Ojalá que ganemos

Other Uses and the Imperfect Subjunctive

The subjunctive also follows certain conjunctions and unknown antecedents.
  • Conjunctions that always take it: para que, antes de que, sin que, a menos que, con tal de que
  • Cuando, hasta que, en cuanto take the subjunctive for future actions: Cuando llegues, llámame
  • Unknown or nonexistent antecedents: Busco un libro que explique esto
  • Imperfect subjunctive: ellos preterite, drop -ron, add -ra endings: hablaran → hablara, tuviera, fuera
  • Sequence of tenses: a past trigger takes the imperfect subjunctive: Quería que vinieras
Same subject, no que: 'Quiero ir' (not 'Quiero que yo vaya').
'Creo que es verdad' (indicative) vs. 'No creo que sea verdad' (subjunctive).
Cuando with a past or habitual action takes the indicative: 'Cuando llegué, comí'.

Uses of Para

Para points toward a goal, destination or deadline.
  • Purpose (in order to): Estudio para aprender
  • Destination: Salimos para Madrid
  • Recipient: Este regalo es para ti
  • Deadline: La tarea es para el lunes
  • Opinion and comparison: Para mí, es fácil; Para un niño, lee muy bien

Uses of Por

Por looks at cause, means, exchange or movement through.
  • Cause or reason (because of): Llegué tarde por el tráfico
  • Exchange or price: Pagué diez dólares por el libro; Gracias por todo
  • Duration: Estudié por dos horas
  • Means of communication or transportation: por teléfono, por avión
  • Movement through or along: Caminamos por el parque; also 'per': 60 millas por hora

Other Prepositions and Expressions

Some prepositions don't translate one-to-one.
  • Fixed expressions with por: por fin, por ejemplo, por eso, por favor, por supuesto
  • Verbs with a preposition: soñar con, pensar en, depender de, enamorarse de, casarse con
  • Prepositional pronouns: para mí, para ti, con él; con + mí/ti → conmigo, contigo
  • A personal: use 'a' before a specific person as a direct object: Veo a mi abuela
  • De + el → del; a + el → al
Gracias por, not 'gracias para'.
'Para' + infinitive = in order to; don't use 'por' for purpose.
Pensar en = to think about; pensar de = opinion of.

Geography and Diversity

Spanish is an official language in 20 countries plus Puerto Rico, and is widely spoken beyond them.
  • Spanish is an official language of 20 countries plus Puerto Rico (a U.S. territory), and has about 500 million native speakers
  • Regions: Spain, Mexico, Central America, the Caribbean, South America and Equatorial Guinea in Africa
  • Vocabulary varies by region: 'bus' can be autobús, camión (Mexico), guagua (Caribbean, Canary Islands) or colectivo (Argentina)
  • Voseo: in Argentina, Uruguay and parts of Central America, vos replaces tú (vos tenés)
  • The U.S. has one of the largest Spanish-speaking populations in the world

History and Heritage

The Spanish-speaking world blends Indigenous, European and African heritage.
  • Great Indigenous civilizations included the Maya, Aztec (Mexica) and Inca
  • Spanish colonization began after 1492; most Latin American countries won independence in the early 1800s
  • Many Indigenous languages remain widely spoken, such as Quechua, Guaraní (co-official in Paraguay) and Nahuatl
  • Spain has co-official regional languages: Catalan, Galician and Basque
  • African heritage shapes Caribbean and coastal music, food and culture

Arts and Traditions

Traditions and artists from the Spanish-speaking world are known worldwide.
  • Día de los Muertos (Mexico, Nov. 1–2) honors deceased loved ones with ofrendas
  • Writers: Miguel de Cervantes (Don Quijote), Gabriel García Márquez and Pablo Neruda (Nobel Prizes), Gabriela Mistral (first Latin American Nobel in Literature, 1945)
  • Artists: Frida Kahlo, Diego Rivera, Pablo Picasso, Salvador Dalí
  • Music and dance: flamenco (Spain), tango (Argentina), salsa, cumbia, reggaetón
  • La quinceañera celebrates a girl's 15th birthday in many Latin American communities
Día de los Muertos isn't 'Mexican Halloween'. It honors the dead with family remembrance.
Brazil speaks Portuguese, not Spanish.
Vocabulary differences are normal, not mistakes: 'coche' vs. 'carro' vs. 'auto'.

Before Reading or Listening

Preparing your brain for a text makes comprehension much easier.
  • Predict content from titles, images and headings
  • Activate vocabulary you already know about the topic
  • Identify the text type (news article, ad, interview, story) and its likely purpose
  • Read the questions first on a test so you know what to listen or look for
  • Set a purpose: gist (main idea) or specific details

Decoding Unknown Words

You don't need to know every word to understand a text.
  • Cognates look similar in English and Spanish: información, importante, universidad
  • False cognates (falsos amigos): embarazada = pregnant, librería = bookstore, éxito = success, carpeta = folder
  • Use context clues from surrounding sentences
  • Recognize word families and parts: -mente = -ly (rápidamente); -dad = -ty (ciudad)
  • Skip words that aren't essential to the main idea

Listening Skills

Listening in real time requires different strategies than reading.
  • Listen for key words, numbers, names and time expressions
  • Pay attention to tone, emphasis and connectors (pero, sin embargo, por eso, además)
  • On a first listen get the gist; on a second, catch details
  • Native speakers link words together; practice with authentic audio (podcasts, news, songs)
  • Take quick notes with abbreviations rather than full sentences
'Estoy embarazada' means 'I'm pregnant', not 'embarrassed' (avergonzado/a).
Trying to translate every word slows comprehension.
Connectors like 'sin embargo' signal contrast. Don't skip them.
Term
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Unit 1: Advanced Preterite vs Imperfect

Preterite
Completed past actions with a defined beginning or end.
Imperfect
Ongoing, habitual or descriptive past (was -ing, used to).
Interrupted action
Imperfect for what was happening + preterite for the interruption.
conocí vs. conocía
I met vs. I knew.
supe vs. sabía
I found out vs. I knew.
pude vs. no pude
I managed to vs. I failed to.

Unit 2: Future & Conditional

Future tense
Infinitive + -é, -ás, -á, -emos, -éis, -án.
Conditional
Infinitive + -ía, -ías, -ía, -íamos, -íais, -ían ('would').
Irregular stems
tendr-, saldr-, vendr-, pondr-, podr-, sabr-, har-, dir-, querr-, habr-.
Future of probability
¿Qué hora será? = I wonder what time it is.
Real si clause
Si + present → future.
Hypothetical si clause
Si + imperfect subjunctive → conditional.

Unit 3: Present Perfect

Present perfect
haber (present) + past participle: he hablado.
Regular participles
-ar → -ado; -er/-ir → -ido.
Irregular participles
abierto, dicho, escrito, hecho, muerto, puesto, roto, visto, vuelto.
Pluperfect
haber (imperfect) + participle: había comido = I had eaten.
Participle as adjective
Agrees in gender/number: las puertas abiertas.
Acabar de
Acabar de + infinitive = to have just done something.

Unit 4: Commands Review & Advanced

Affirmative tú command
Él/ella present form: habla, come, escribe.
Irregular tú commands
di, haz, ve, pon, sal, sé, ten, ven.
Negative tú command
No + present subjunctive: no hables.
Usted command
Present subjunctive: hable, coma, vaya.
Nosotros command
Let's: hablemos; reflexive drops -s: sentémonos.
Pronoun placement
Attached to affirmative, before negative commands.

Unit 5: Subjunctive Deep Dive

Present subjunctive formation
Yo form − o + opposite endings (-ar → e; -er/-ir → a).
DISHES
dar (dé), ir (vaya), ser (sea), haber (haya), estar (esté), saber (sepa).
WEIRDO
Wishes, emotions, impersonal expressions, recommendations, doubt/denial, ojalá.
Change of subject
Subjunctive needs a new subject after que; same subject uses the infinitive.
Imperfect subjunctive
Ellos preterite − ron + -ra endings: hablara, fuera, tuviera.
Conjunctions always + subjunctive
para que, antes de que, sin que, a menos que, con tal de que.

Unit 6: Por vs Para & Prepositions

Para (uses)
Purpose, destination, recipient, deadline, opinion/comparison.
Por (uses)
Cause, exchange, duration, means, movement through, 'per'.
Por expressions
por fin, por ejemplo, por eso, por favor, por supuesto.
Conmigo / contigo
With me / with you (informal).
Personal a
Used before a specific person who is a direct object.
Verb + preposition
soñar con, pensar en, depender de, casarse con.

Unit 7: Culture: Spanish-Speaking World

Voseo
Use of vos instead of tú (Argentina, Uruguay, parts of Central America).
Día de los Muertos
Nov. 1–2 Mexican tradition honoring deceased loved ones.
Ofrenda
Altar with photos, food, candles and marigolds for the deceased.
Guaraní
Indigenous language co-official in Paraguay.
Quinceañera
Celebration of a girl's 15th birthday.
Don Quijote
Cervantes' novel (1605/1615), a landmark of Spanish literature.

Unit 8: Reading & Listening Strategies

Cognate
Word similar in form and meaning in two languages.
False cognate
Look-alike with a different meaning: embarazada = pregnant.
Context clues
Using surrounding words to infer meaning.
Gist
The main idea of a text or recording.
Connectors
pero, sin embargo, por eso, además: signal relationships.
-mente / -dad
Spanish equivalents of -ly / -ty.
Press 1–4 to answer · Enter for next

Unit 1: Advanced Preterite vs Imperfect

When to Use the Preterite
The preterite presents past actions as completed, with a clear beginning or end.
When to Use the Imperfect
The imperfect describes ongoing, habitual or background situations in the past.
Verbs That Change Meaning
Some verbs mean something different in the preterite.
Key fact
Preterite = completed actions; imperfect = ongoing or habitual background.
Key fact
Interrupted action: imperfect (in progress) + preterite (interruption).
Key fact
Time and age in the past use the imperfect: Eran las dos; tenía doce años.
Key fact
Conocí = I met; supe = I found out.

Unit 2: Future & Conditional

The Simple Future
The future tense adds endings to the whole infinitive.
The Conditional
The conditional expresses what would happen.
Si Clauses
Conditional sentences pair specific tenses.
Key fact
Future endings: -é, -ás, -á, -emos, -éis, -án on the infinitive.
Key fact
Conditional endings: -ía, -ías, -ía, -íamos, -íais, -ían.
Key fact
Future and conditional share irregular stems (tendr-, har-, dir-…).
Key fact
Si + imperfect subjunctive → conditional.

Unit 3: Present Perfect

Forming the Present Perfect
The present perfect uses haber plus a past participle.
When to Use It
The present perfect links past actions to the present.
Past Participles as Adjectives
Participles can also describe nouns.
Key fact
Present perfect = haber (he, has, ha, hemos, habéis, han) + participle.
Key fact
Irregular participles: abierto, dicho, escrito, hecho, muerto, puesto, roto, visto, vuelto.
Key fact
Participles don't agree after haber; they agree as adjectives.
Key fact
Acabar de + infinitive = to have just done.

Unit 4: Commands Review & Advanced

Tú Commands
Informal commands have different affirmative and negative forms.
Formal and Nosotros Commands
Usted, ustedes and nosotros commands come from the subjunctive.
Using Commands Politely
Commands can sound abrupt; Spanish has softer options.
Key fact
Affirmative tú = third-person singular present.
Key fact
Irregular tú: di, haz, ve, pon, sal, sé, ten, ven.
Key fact
Negative and formal commands use the subjunctive.
Key fact
Pronouns attach to affirmative commands, precede negative ones.

Unit 5: Subjunctive Deep Dive

Forming the Present Subjunctive
Start from the yo form of the present, drop -o, and add 'opposite' endings.
WEIRDO Triggers
The subjunctive appears in a dependent clause after certain triggers, usually with a change of subject.
Other Uses and the Imperfect Subjunctive
The subjunctive also follows certain conjunctions and unknown antecedents.
Key fact
Present subjunctive: yo form minus -o + opposite vowel endings.
Key fact
DISHES irregulars: dé, vaya, sea, haya, esté, sepa.
Key fact
WEIRDO: wishes, emotions, impersonal expressions, recommendations, doubt, ojalá.
Key fact
Creer/pensar affirmative take the indicative; negative take the subjunctive.

Unit 6: Por vs Para & Prepositions

Uses of Para
Para points toward a goal, destination or deadline.
Uses of Por
Por looks at cause, means, exchange or movement through.
Other Prepositions and Expressions
Some prepositions don't translate one-to-one.
Key fact
Para: purpose, destination, recipient, deadline, opinion.
Key fact
Por: cause, exchange, duration, means, through.
Key fact
Conmigo, contigo (not 'con mí').
Key fact
Personal a before a person as direct object.

Unit 7: Culture: Spanish-Speaking World

Geography and Diversity
Spanish is an official language in 20 countries plus Puerto Rico, and is widely spoken beyond them.
History and Heritage
The Spanish-speaking world blends Indigenous, European and African heritage.
Arts and Traditions
Traditions and artists from the Spanish-speaking world are known worldwide.
Key fact
Spanish is official in 20 countries plus Puerto Rico.
Key fact
Voseo (vos) is used in Argentina, Uruguay and parts of Central America.
Key fact
Guaraní is co-official in Paraguay.
Key fact
Gabriela Mistral: first Latin American Nobel laureate in Literature (1945).

Unit 8: Reading & Listening Strategies

Before Reading or Listening
Preparing your brain for a text makes comprehension much easier.
Decoding Unknown Words
You don't need to know every word to understand a text.
Listening Skills
Listening in real time requires different strategies than reading.
Key fact
Cognates: similar words in both languages.
Key fact
False cognates: embarazada (pregnant), librería (bookstore), éxito (success).
Key fact
-mente = -ly; -dad = -ty.
Key fact
First listen: gist; second listen: details.
Common mistakes for each unit — read the mistake, then make sure you know why it's wrong.

Unit 1: Advanced Preterite vs Imperfect

Watch out
'Used to' is always imperfect, never preterite.
Watch out
Duration alone doesn't force the imperfect: 'Viví allí cinco años' (a closed period) is preterite.
Watch out
Don't translate 'was/were' automatically as imperfect of estar; ask whether the action was completed.

Unit 2: Future & Conditional

Watch out
Don't say 'Si tendría dinero'. It should be 'Si tuviera dinero'.
Watch out
Hacer → haré (not haceré); decir → diré (not deciré).
Watch out
The conditional endings look like -er/-ir imperfect endings but attach to the infinitive.

Unit 3: Present Perfect

Watch out
Don't put pronouns between haber and the participle: 'Lo he hecho', not 'He lo hecho'.
Watch out
Hecho, not 'hacido'; visto, not 'veído'.
Watch out
'Han llegadas' is wrong; after haber the participle is invariable.

Unit 4: Commands Review & Advanced

Watch out
Negative tú isn't just 'no' + affirmative: 'No habla' is wrong; it's 'No hables'.
Watch out
Ve (go) and ve (see) look the same; context decides.
Watch out
Le/les + lo/la becomes se lo/se la, never 'le lo'.

Unit 5: Subjunctive Deep Dive

Watch out
Same subject, no que: 'Quiero ir' (not 'Quiero que yo vaya').
Watch out
'Creo que es verdad' (indicative) vs. 'No creo que sea verdad' (subjunctive).
Watch out
Cuando with a past or habitual action takes the indicative: 'Cuando llegué, comí'.

Unit 6: Por vs Para & Prepositions

Watch out
Gracias por, not 'gracias para'.
Watch out
'Para' + infinitive = in order to; don't use 'por' for purpose.
Watch out
Pensar en = to think about; pensar de = opinion of.

Unit 7: Culture: Spanish-Speaking World

Watch out
Día de los Muertos isn't 'Mexican Halloween'. It honors the dead with family remembrance.
Watch out
Brazil speaks Portuguese, not Spanish.
Watch out
Vocabulary differences are normal, not mistakes: 'coche' vs. 'carro' vs. 'auto'.

Unit 8: Reading & Listening Strategies

Watch out
'Estoy embarazada' means 'I'm pregnant', not 'embarrassed' (avergonzado/a).
Watch out
Trying to translate every word slows comprehension.
Watch out
Connectors like 'sin embargo' signal contrast. Don't skip them.