0% of the question bank attempted

History & Approaches: Foundations

This section covers 5 key ideas in history & approaches: Wilhelm Wundt, Structuralism, Functionalism, Introspection, Psychoanalytic perspective.
  • Wilhelm Wundt — founded the first formal psychology laboratory in Leipzig, Germany, in 1879, marking psychology's start as a science.
  • Structuralism — Edward Titchener's school that used introspection to break consciousness down into its most basic components.
  • Functionalism — William James's approach that studied the purpose (function) mental processes serve in helping organisms adapt.
  • Introspection — a research method in which trained observers report on their own inner thoughts and sensations.
  • Psychoanalytic perspective — Sigmund Freud's view that behavior is driven by unconscious conflicts, drives, and childhood experiences.

History & Approaches: Core Theories & Mechanisms

This section covers 5 key ideas in history & approaches: Behaviorism, Humanistic perspective, Cognitive perspective, Biological perspective, Sociocultural perspective.
  • Behaviorism — the perspective of John B. Watson and B.F. Skinner that psychology should study only observable, measurable behavior.
  • Humanistic perspective — Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow's approach emphasizing free will, personal growth, and self-actualization.
  • Cognitive perspective — the approach that studies internal mental processes such as memory, thinking, problem-solving, and language.
  • Biological perspective — the approach that links behavior to genetics, brain structures, and the nervous system.
  • Sociocultural perspective — the approach examining how culture, ethnicity, and social context shape thought and behavior.

History & Approaches: Key People & Contributions

This section covers 5 key ideas in history & approaches: Evolutionary perspective, Biopsychosocial model, Nature vs. nurture, Empiricism, Clinical psychologist.
  • Evolutionary perspective — the approach explaining behavior in terms of natural selection and its adaptive value for survival and reproduction.
  • Biopsychosocial model — an integrative model explaining behavior through the combined influence of biological, psychological, and social factors.
  • Nature vs. nurture — the ongoing debate over the relative contributions of genetics versus environment and experience to behavior.
  • Empiricism — the idea that knowledge should be based on observation and experience, the foundation of scientific psychology.
  • Clinical psychologist — a professional trained to assess and treat mental, emotional, and behavioral disorders, usually holding a PhD or PsyD.

History & Approaches: Processes in Depth

This section covers 5 key ideas in history & approaches: Psychiatrist, Basic vs. applied research, Gestalt psychology, Mary Whiton Calkins, Dorothea Dix.
  • Psychiatrist — a medical doctor (MD) who can prescribe medication to treat mental disorders.
  • Basic vs. applied research — basic research seeks knowledge for its own sake, while applied research aims to solve practical, real-world problems.
  • Gestalt psychology — Max Wertheimer's school holding that 'the whole is greater than the sum of its parts' in perception.
  • Mary Whiton Calkins — the first woman president of the American Psychological Association, though Harvard denied her the PhD she earned.
  • Dorothea Dix — a 19th-century reformer who campaigned for humane treatment and care of people with mental illness.

History & Approaches: Applications & Distinctions

This section covers 2 key ideas in history & approaches: G. Stanley Hall, Eclectic approach.
  • G. Stanley Hall — founder of the first American psychology laboratory (at Johns Hopkins) and the first president of the APA.
  • Eclectic approach — combining insights from multiple psychological perspectives to more fully explain behavior.
Structuralism used introspection to analyze the elements of consciousness; functionalism, not structuralism, asked what mental processes are FOR.
Psychology became a science with Wundt's 1879 lab, not with Freud's later psychoanalytic theory.
Behaviorism studies only observable behavior — it does not deny mental processes exist, it simply argues they can't be studied scientifically.
A psychiatrist can prescribe medication because they are a medical doctor; a clinical psychologist typically cannot.

Research Methods: Foundations

This section covers 5 key ideas in research methods: Scientific method, Hypothesis, Operational definition, Descriptive research, Case study.
  • Scientific method — a process of inquiry involving observation, forming a hypothesis, testing it, analyzing data, and drawing conclusions.
  • Hypothesis — a specific, testable prediction about the relationship between variables.
  • Operational definition — a precise, measurable description of exactly how a variable will be manipulated or measured in a study.
  • Descriptive research — methods such as case studies, surveys, and naturalistic observation that describe behavior without manipulating variables.
  • Case study — an in-depth investigation of one individual or small group, often used to study rare phenomena.

Research Methods: Core Theories & Mechanisms

This section covers 5 key ideas in research methods: Naturalistic observation, Survey method, Correlational research, Positive correlation, Negative correlation.
  • Naturalistic observation — observing and recording behavior in a real-world setting without interfering.
  • Survey method — gathering self-reported data through questionnaires or interviews, which can be biased by social desirability.
  • Correlational research — a method that measures the relationship between two variables but cannot establish that one causes the other.
  • Positive correlation — a relationship in which two variables increase or decrease together.
  • Negative correlation — a relationship in which one variable increases as the other decreases.

Research Methods: Key People & Contributions

This section covers 5 key ideas in research methods: Experiment, Independent variable, Dependent variable, Experimental vs. control group, Random assignment.
  • Experiment — the only research method that can establish cause-and-effect relationships between variables.
  • Independent variable — the variable a researcher deliberately manipulates in an experiment.
  • Dependent variable — the outcome variable that is measured in an experiment.
  • Experimental vs. control group — the experimental group receives the treatment being tested while the control group does not, serving as a baseline.
  • Random assignment — assigning participants to experimental conditions by chance to control for confounding variables.

Research Methods: Processes in Depth

This section covers 5 key ideas in research methods: Confounding variable, Placebo effect, Double-blind procedure, Sample vs. population, Random sampling.
  • Confounding variable — an outside factor other than the independent variable that could affect the outcome and threaten a study's validity.
  • Placebo effect — improvement in symptoms due to the expectation of treatment rather than the treatment itself.
  • Double-blind procedure — a design in which neither participants nor researchers know who is receiving the treatment, reducing bias.
  • Sample vs. population — a sample is the subset of people actually studied; the population is the entire group the researcher wants to describe.
  • Random sampling — a technique giving every member of a population an equal chance of being selected, improving generalizability.

Research Methods: Applications & Distinctions

This section covers 5 key ideas in research methods: Validity, Reliability, Informed consent, Debriefing, Statistical significance.
  • Validity — the extent to which a test or study actually measures what it claims to measure.
  • Reliability — the consistency of a measure or result across time and repeated testing.
  • Informed consent — an ethical requirement that participants be told what a study involves before agreeing to take part.
  • Debriefing — explaining the true purpose of a study to participants afterward, especially important when deception was used.
  • Statistical significance — a mathematical indication that a research result is unlikely to have occurred simply by chance.
Correlation shows a relationship between variables but never proves causation — a third variable could explain both.
The independent variable is what the researcher manipulates; the dependent variable is what gets measured, not the reverse.
Random assignment (used in experiments to form groups) is not the same as random sampling (used to select participants from a population).
A double-blind procedure hides the treatment from both participants AND researchers, not just participants.

Biological Bases of Behavior: Foundations

This section covers 5 key ideas in biological bases of behavior: Neuron, Dendrites, Axon, Myelin sheath, Synapse.
  • Neuron — the basic building block of the nervous system, specialized to receive and transmit electrical and chemical signals.
  • Dendrites — the branch-like extensions of a neuron that receive signals from other neurons.
  • Axon — the long fiber of a neuron that carries the electrical impulse, or action potential, away from the cell body.
  • Myelin sheath — the fatty layer that coats many axons and speeds up neural transmission.
  • Synapse — the tiny gap between neurons across which neurotransmitters are released to relay a signal.

Biological Bases of Behavior: Core Theories & Mechanisms

This section covers 5 key ideas in biological bases of behavior: Neurotransmitters, Dopamine, Serotonin, Acetylcholine, Central nervous system.
  • Neurotransmitters — chemical messengers such as dopamine, serotonin, acetylcholine, and GABA that carry signals across the synapse.
  • Dopamine — a neurotransmitter involved in reward and movement; abnormally low levels are linked to Parkinson's disease.
  • Serotonin — a neurotransmitter that regulates mood, hunger, and sleep; low levels are linked to depression.
  • Acetylcholine — a neurotransmitter involved in muscle movement and memory; its loss is linked to Alzheimer's disease.
  • Central nervous system — the division of the nervous system made up of the brain and spinal cord.

Biological Bases of Behavior: Key People & Contributions

This section covers 5 key ideas in biological bases of behavior: Peripheral nervous system, Somatic nervous system, Autonomic nervous system, Sympathetic nervous system, Parasympathetic nervous system.
  • Peripheral nervous system — the nerves connecting the central nervous system to the rest of the body, divided into somatic and autonomic branches.
  • Somatic nervous system — the division of the peripheral nervous system that controls voluntary skeletal muscle movements.
  • Autonomic nervous system — the division of the peripheral nervous system controlling involuntary functions like heart rate and digestion.
  • Sympathetic nervous system — the branch of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body for 'fight or flight'.
  • Parasympathetic nervous system — the branch of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body, promoting 'rest and digest'.

Biological Bases of Behavior: Processes in Depth

This section covers 5 key ideas in biological bases of behavior: Frontal lobe, Parietal lobe, Temporal lobe, Occipital lobe, Broca's area.
  • Frontal lobe — the brain region responsible for reasoning, planning, decision-making, and voluntary movement; contains the motor cortex.
  • Parietal lobe — the brain region that processes touch, pressure, and spatial awareness; contains the somatosensory cortex.
  • Temporal lobe — the brain region that processes auditory information and, via Wernicke's area, language comprehension.
  • Occipital lobe — the brain region at the back of the brain that processes visual information.
  • Broca's area — a frontal lobe region responsible for speech production; damage causes halting, effortful speech.

Biological Bases of Behavior: Applications & Distinctions

This section covers 5 key ideas in biological bases of behavior: Wernicke's area, Hippocampus, Amygdala, Hypothalamus, Thalamus.
  • Wernicke's area — a temporal lobe region responsible for language comprehension; damage causes fluent but nonsensical speech.
  • Hippocampus — a brain structure critical for forming new long-term, explicit memories.
  • Amygdala — a brain structure central to processing fear and other emotional responses.
  • Hypothalamus — a brain structure that regulates hunger, thirst, and body temperature and links the nervous and endocrine systems.
  • Thalamus — the brain's sensory relay station, routing most incoming sensory information to the cortex.

Biological Bases of Behavior: Putting It Together

This section covers 5 key ideas in biological bases of behavior: Cerebellum, Corpus callosum, Endocrine system, Plasticity, Reflex arc.
  • Cerebellum — the brain structure at the back of the skull that coordinates balance, posture, and fine motor movement.
  • Corpus callosum — the thick band of nerve fibers connecting the brain's left and right hemispheres.
  • Endocrine system — a system of glands, including the pituitary, adrenal, and thyroid, that release hormones into the bloodstream.
  • Plasticity — the brain's ability to change and reorganize itself, especially useful for recovery after damage.
  • Reflex arc — a simple, automatic response involving sensory neurons, sometimes interneurons, and motor neurons, often bypassing the brain.
The sympathetic nervous system arouses the body ('fight or flight'); the parasympathetic system calms it ('rest and digest') — students often reverse these.
Broca's area damage impairs speech PRODUCTION (halting speech); Wernicke's area damage impairs speech COMPREHENSION (fluent but meaningless speech).
The hippocampus forms new long-term memories; the amygdala processes fear and emotion — these are often confused.
Neurotransmitters cross the synapse between neurons; they do not travel down the axon (that's the electrical action potential).

Sensation & Perception: Foundations

This section covers 4 key ideas in sensation & perception: Sensation, Perception, Absolute threshold, Difference threshold (JND).
  • Sensation — the process by which sensory receptors detect physical stimuli from the environment.
  • Perception — the process of organizing and interpreting sensory information so that it becomes meaningful.
  • Absolute threshold — the minimum intensity of a stimulus needed to detect it 50 percent of the time.
  • Difference threshold (JND) — the smallest detectable difference between two stimuli, also called the just noticeable difference.

Sensation & Perception: Core Theories & Mechanisms

This section covers 4 key ideas in sensation & perception: Weber's Law, Signal detection theory, Sensory adaptation, Transduction.
  • Weber's Law — the principle that the difference threshold is a constant proportion of the original stimulus's intensity.
  • Signal detection theory — the theory that detecting a stimulus depends on both its intensity and psychological factors like expectation and motivation.
  • Sensory adaptation — diminished sensitivity to a stimulus following constant, unchanging exposure to it.
  • Transduction — the conversion of physical stimulus energy into neural impulses the brain can interpret.

Sensation & Perception: Key People & Contributions

This section covers 4 key ideas in sensation & perception: Retina, Rods, Cones, Trichromatic theory.
  • Retina — the light-sensitive inner surface of the eye containing the receptor cells rods and cones.
  • Rods — retinal receptors that detect black, white, and gray and function best in low light.
  • Cones — retinal receptors concentrated in the fovea that detect color and fine visual detail.
  • Trichromatic theory — the theory that three types of cones sensitive to red, green, and blue underlie color vision.

Sensation & Perception: Processes in Depth

This section covers 4 key ideas in sensation & perception: Opponent-process theory, Cochlea, Place theory, Frequency theory.
  • Opponent-process theory — the theory that color is processed in opposing pairs (red-green, blue-yellow, black-white), explaining afterimages.
  • Cochlea — the fluid-filled, snail-shaped structure in the inner ear where hair cells transduce sound waves into neural signals.
  • Place theory — the theory that pitch is determined by the specific location on the basilar membrane that vibrates most, best for high pitches.
  • Frequency theory — the theory that pitch is determined by the rate at which neurons fire, matching the sound wave's frequency, best for low pitches.

Sensation & Perception: Applications & Distinctions

This section covers 4 key ideas in sensation & perception: Gate-control theory, Gestalt principles, Figure-ground, Depth perception.
  • Gate-control theory — the theory that the spinal cord contains a neurological gate that can block or allow pain signals to reach the brain.
  • Gestalt principles — rules such as figure-ground, proximity, similarity, and closure describing how the mind organizes perception into wholes.
  • Figure-ground — the Gestalt principle of organizing a visual scene into a distinct object (figure) and its surrounding background.
  • Depth perception — the ability to judge distance using monocular cues like relative size and binocular cues like retinal disparity.

Sensation & Perception: Putting It Together

This section covers 4 key ideas in sensation & perception: Perceptual constancy, Bottom-up processing, Top-down processing, Selective attention.
  • Perceptual constancy — the tendency to perceive objects as unchanging in size, shape, or color despite changes in sensory input.
  • Bottom-up processing — perception that begins with raw sensory data and builds upward toward a complete perception.
  • Top-down processing — perception guided by prior knowledge, expectations, and context to interpret incoming sensory information.
  • Selective attention — the focusing of awareness on a single stimulus while filtering out others, as in the cocktail party effect.
Sensation is the raw detection of stimuli; perception is the brain organizing and interpreting that information — they are not the same step.
Rods handle black-and-white, low-light vision; cones handle color and detail — students often swap these.
Place theory best explains high-pitched sounds; frequency theory best explains low-pitched sounds.
Top-down processing relies on expectations and prior knowledge; bottom-up processing builds perception from raw sensory data alone.

Learning & Memory: Foundations

This section covers 5 key ideas in learning & memory: Classical conditioning, Unconditioned stimulus/response, Conditioned stimulus/response, Extinction, Spontaneous recovery.
  • Classical conditioning — Ivan Pavlov's form of learning in which a neutral stimulus comes to trigger a response through repeated association.
  • Unconditioned stimulus/response — a stimulus that naturally and automatically triggers a response without any prior learning.
  • Conditioned stimulus/response — a previously neutral stimulus that, after association, comes to trigger a learned response.
  • Extinction — the weakening and eventual disappearance of a conditioned response when it is no longer reinforced.
  • Spontaneous recovery — the reappearance of a weakened conditioned response after a rest period following extinction.

Learning & Memory: Core Theories & Mechanisms

This section covers 5 key ideas in learning & memory: Stimulus generalization, Stimulus discrimination, Operant conditioning, Positive reinforcement, Negative reinforcement.
  • Stimulus generalization — responding in the same way to stimuli that resemble the original conditioned stimulus.
  • Stimulus discrimination — learning to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and other similar stimuli that do not signal the same outcome.
  • Operant conditioning — B.F. Skinner's form of learning in which behavior is strengthened or weakened by its consequences.
  • Positive reinforcement — adding a pleasant stimulus after a behavior in order to increase that behavior.
  • Negative reinforcement — removing an unpleasant stimulus after a behavior in order to increase that behavior.

Learning & Memory: Key People & Contributions

This section covers 5 key ideas in learning & memory: Positive punishment, Negative punishment, Schedules of reinforcement, Shaping, Edward Thorndike.
  • Positive punishment — adding an unpleasant stimulus after a behavior in order to decrease that behavior.
  • Negative punishment — removing a pleasant stimulus after a behavior in order to decrease that behavior.
  • Schedules of reinforcement — patterns (fixed ratio, variable ratio, fixed interval, variable interval) describing when reinforcement is delivered.
  • Shaping — reinforcing successive approximations of a target behavior until the full behavior is learned.
  • Edward Thorndike — psychologist whose Law of Effect states that behaviors followed by satisfying consequences are more likely to recur.

Learning & Memory: Processes in Depth

This section covers 5 key ideas in learning & memory: Observational learning, Latent learning, Encoding, Storage, Retrieval.
  • Observational learning — Albert Bandura's concept of learning by watching and imitating a model, demonstrated in the Bobo doll experiment.
  • Latent learning — Edward Tolman's concept of learning that occurs without reinforcement and isn't demonstrated until there is incentive to do so.
  • Encoding — the process of getting information into memory.
  • Storage — the process of retaining encoded information over time.
  • Retrieval — the process of getting information back out of memory storage.

Learning & Memory: Applications & Distinctions

This section covers 5 key ideas in learning & memory: Working memory, Chunking, Long-term potentiation, Explicit memory, Implicit memory.
  • Working memory — the active, limited-capacity system for temporarily holding and manipulating information, part of short-term memory.
  • Chunking — organizing information into meaningful, manageable units to improve memory.
  • Long-term potentiation — the strengthening of synaptic connections believed to be the neural basis of learning and memory.
  • Explicit memory — conscious, effortful memories of facts (semantic) and personal experiences (episodic).
  • Implicit memory — unconscious memories of skills and conditioned associations that don't require deliberate recollection.

Learning & Memory: Putting It Together

This section covers 2 key ideas in learning & memory: Serial position effect, Interference.
  • Serial position effect — the tendency to best recall the first items (primacy effect) and last items (recency effect) in a list.
  • Interference — forgetting caused by competition from other memories, either proactive (old blocks new) or retroactive (new blocks old).
Negative reinforcement REMOVES something unpleasant to INCREASE behavior — it is not the same as punishment, which decreases behavior.
Classical conditioning pairs two stimuli to create an automatic response; operant conditioning uses consequences to shape voluntary behavior.
Extinction is the weakening of a response, while spontaneous recovery is its temporary reappearance after a rest period.
Explicit memories are conscious and effortful; implicit memories (like skills) operate without deliberate recollection.

Development: Foundations

This section covers 5 key ideas in development: Developmental psychology, Jean Piaget, Sensorimotor stage, Preoperational stage, Concrete operational stage.
  • Developmental psychology — the study of physical, cognitive, and social change across the human lifespan.
  • Jean Piaget — the theorist who proposed that children move through four stages of cognitive development.
  • Sensorimotor stage — Piaget's first stage (birth to about 2), during which infants develop object permanence.
  • Preoperational stage — Piaget's second stage (about 2 to 7), marked by symbolic thought, egocentrism, and lack of conservation.
  • Concrete operational stage — Piaget's third stage (about 7 to 11), when children think logically about concrete events and grasp conservation.

Development: Core Theories & Mechanisms

This section covers 5 key ideas in development: Formal operational stage, Object permanence, Conservation, Lev Vygotsky, Zone of proximal development.
  • Formal operational stage — Piaget's fourth stage (about 12 and up), when abstract and hypothetical reasoning becomes possible.
  • Object permanence — the understanding that objects continue to exist even when they cannot be seen.
  • Conservation — the understanding that a quantity stays the same even when its shape or appearance changes.
  • Lev Vygotsky — the theorist who emphasized the sociocultural context of development and the zone of proximal development.
  • Zone of proximal development — Vygotsky's concept of the gap between what a learner can do alone and what they can do with guidance.

Development: Key People & Contributions

This section covers 5 key ideas in development: Erik Erikson, Identity vs. role confusion, Mary Ainsworth, Harry Harlow, Konrad Lorenz.
  • Erik Erikson — the theorist who proposed eight psychosocial stages, each centered on a developmental crisis across the lifespan.
  • Identity vs. role confusion — Erikson's adolescent stage in which the central task is forming a coherent sense of self.
  • Mary Ainsworth — researcher whose Strange Situation experiment identified secure, avoidant, and anxious/ambivalent attachment styles.
  • Harry Harlow — researcher whose monkey studies showed that contact comfort matters more than feeding for attachment.
  • Konrad Lorenz — researcher who studied imprinting, the rapid attachment bond formed during a critical period after birth.

Development: Processes in Depth

This section covers 5 key ideas in development: Temperament, Lawrence Kohlberg, Authoritative parenting, Authoritarian parenting, Permissive parenting.
  • Temperament — biologically based individual differences in emotional and behavioral style, present from birth.
  • Lawrence Kohlberg — the theorist who proposed stages of moral development: preconventional, conventional, and postconventional.
  • Authoritative parenting — a parenting style combining high warmth with high, reasoned expectations, generally linked to positive outcomes.
  • Authoritarian parenting — a parenting style demanding strict obedience with little warmth or explanation.
  • Permissive parenting — a parenting style that is warm but sets few rules or expectations.

Development: Applications & Distinctions

This section covers 3 key ideas in development: Puberty, Teratogens, Cross-sectional vs. longitudinal design.
  • Puberty — the period of sexual maturation marking the transition from childhood to adolescent development.
  • Teratogens — environmental agents, such as alcohol or certain drugs, that can harm a developing fetus.
  • Cross-sectional vs. longitudinal design — comparing different age groups at one point in time versus following the same group over years.
Object permanence develops in the sensorimotor stage; conservation develops later, in the concrete operational stage — they are not interchangeable.
Piaget focused on stages of cognitive development; Erikson focused on stages of psychosocial development — different domains entirely.
Harlow's monkey studies emphasized contact comfort over feeding; this is often mistakenly attributed to Ainsworth, whose work was on attachment styles via the Strange Situation.
Authoritative parenting (warm AND firm) is not the same as authoritarian parenting (firm but cold) — the terms are easy to mix up.

Personality Theories: Foundations

This section covers 4 key ideas in personality theories: Personality, Sigmund Freud, Id, Ego.
  • Personality — an individual's characteristic and enduring pattern of thinking, feeling, and behaving.
  • Sigmund Freud — the founder of psychoanalytic theory, who held that personality is shaped by unconscious drives and conflicts.
  • Id — the personality component operating on the pleasure principle, seeking immediate gratification of basic urges.
  • Ego — the personality component operating on the reality principle, mediating between the id's urges and the real world.

Personality Theories: Core Theories & Mechanisms

This section covers 4 key ideas in personality theories: Superego, Defense mechanisms, Psychosexual stages, Carl Jung.
  • Superego — the personality component representing internalized moral standards and ideals.
  • Defense mechanisms — unconscious strategies, such as repression, denial, and projection, that the ego uses to reduce anxiety.
  • Psychosexual stages — Freud's proposed stages (oral, anal, phallic, latency, genital) at which fixation can shape adult personality.
  • Carl Jung — a neo-Freudian who proposed the collective unconscious and universal symbols called archetypes.

Personality Theories: Key People & Contributions

This section covers 4 key ideas in personality theories: Alfred Adler, Karen Horney, Humanistic theory, Abraham Maslow.
  • Alfred Adler — a neo-Freudian who emphasized feelings of inferiority and the drive to strive for superiority.
  • Karen Horney — a neo-Freudian who challenged Freud's view of women and proposed the concept of basic anxiety.
  • Humanistic theory — a perspective on personality emphasizing free will, inherent goodness, and the drive toward growth.
  • Abraham Maslow — the theorist behind the hierarchy of needs, with self-actualization as the highest human motivation.

Personality Theories: Processes in Depth

This section covers 4 key ideas in personality theories: Carl Rogers, Trait theory, Big Five (OCEAN), Social-cognitive theory.
  • Carl Rogers — the humanistic theorist who emphasized unconditional positive regard and congruence between one's real and ideal self.
  • Trait theory — the view of personality as a set of stable, enduring characteristics, catalogued early on by Gordon Allport.
  • Big Five (OCEAN) — the five broad personality traits: Openness, Conscientiousness, Extraversion, Agreeableness, and Neuroticism.
  • Social-cognitive theory — Albert Bandura's view that personality emerges from the ongoing interaction of behavior, thought, and environment.

Personality Theories: Applications & Distinctions

This section covers 3 key ideas in personality theories: Self-efficacy, Locus of control, Projective tests.
  • Self-efficacy — Bandura's term for a person's belief in their own ability to succeed at a given task.
  • Locus of control — Julian Rotter's concept distinguishing an internal sense of control over outcomes from an external one.
  • Projective tests — personality assessments, like the Rorschach inkblot test, that use ambiguous stimuli to reveal unconscious feelings.
The id seeks immediate pleasure, the superego enforces morality, and the ego mediates reality between them — do not swap these roles.
Humanistic theory emphasizes free will and growth, in direct contrast to the psychoanalytic emphasis on unconscious, deterministic drives.
Self-efficacy (belief in one's ability to succeed) is distinct from self-esteem (overall sense of self-worth).
Trait theories describe stable characteristics; they do not explain the underlying causes of personality the way psychoanalytic or humanistic theories attempt to.

Social Psychology & Disorders: Foundations

This section covers 4 key ideas in social psychology & disorders: Social psychology, Attribution theory, Fundamental attribution error, Conformity.
  • Social psychology — the scientific study of how people's thoughts, feelings, and behaviors are influenced by others.
  • Attribution theory — the theory describing how people explain behavior as due to either dispositional or situational causes.
  • Fundamental attribution error — the tendency to overestimate personal traits and underestimate situational factors when judging others' behavior.
  • Conformity — adjusting one's behavior or beliefs to match a group's norms, demonstrated in Solomon Asch's line experiments.

Social Psychology & Disorders: Core Theories & Mechanisms

This section covers 4 key ideas in social psychology & disorders: Obedience, Social facilitation, Social loafing, Groupthink.
  • Obedience — complying with the demands of an authority figure, famously studied in Stanley Milgram's shock experiments.
  • Social facilitation — the tendency to perform better on simple or well-learned tasks when in the presence of others.
  • Social loafing — the tendency to exert less effort on a group task than when working alone.
  • Groupthink — a group's desire for harmony that leads members to suppress dissent and make poor decisions.

Social Psychology & Disorders: Key People & Contributions

This section covers 4 key ideas in social psychology & disorders: Bystander effect, Philip Zimbardo, Cognitive dissonance, Prejudice.
  • Bystander effect — the tendency for individuals to be less likely to help a victim when other people are present.
  • Philip Zimbardo — researcher of the Stanford Prison Experiment, which showed the powerful influence of assigned social roles.
  • Cognitive dissonance — Leon Festinger's concept of the discomfort felt when holding two conflicting beliefs or when behavior conflicts with belief.
  • Prejudice — an unjustified, usually negative attitude held toward a group and its members.

Social Psychology & Disorders: Processes in Depth

This section covers 4 key ideas in social psychology & disorders: Stereotype, Discrimination, In-group bias, Anxiety disorders.
  • Stereotype — a generalized, oversimplified belief about the members of a group.
  • Discrimination — unjust or unequal treatment of individuals based on their group membership.
  • In-group bias — the tendency to favor members of one's own group over those of other groups.
  • Anxiety disorders — a category of disorders marked by excessive, persistent fear or worry, including generalized anxiety disorder and panic disorder.

Social Psychology & Disorders: Applications & Distinctions

This section covers 4 key ideas in social psychology & disorders: Phobia, Obsessive-compulsive disorder, Major depressive disorder, Bipolar disorder.
  • Phobia — a persistent, irrational fear of a specific object, activity, or situation.
  • Obsessive-compulsive disorder — a disorder featuring intrusive, unwanted thoughts (obsessions) and repetitive behaviors performed to reduce anxiety (compulsions).
  • Major depressive disorder — a mood disorder marked by persistent sadness and loss of interest lasting two weeks or more.
  • Bipolar disorder — a mood disorder involving alternating episodes of depression and mania.

Social Psychology & Disorders: Putting It Together

This section covers 4 key ideas in social psychology & disorders: Schizophrenia, Dissociative identity disorder, Antisocial personality disorder, DSM-5.
  • Schizophrenia — a serious disorder marked by hallucinations, delusions, and disorganized thinking and speech.
  • Dissociative identity disorder — a disorder marked by the presence of two or more distinct personality states within one individual.
  • Antisocial personality disorder — a disorder marked by a persistent disregard for and violation of the rights of others, without remorse.
  • DSM-5 — the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, the standard reference used to classify and diagnose mental disorders.
The fundamental attribution error involves OVERestimating personal traits and UNDERestimating situational factors, not the reverse.
Conformity (Asch) involves matching group norms without direct orders; obedience (Milgram) involves following a direct command from an authority figure.
Bipolar disorder involves alternating mania and depression; major depressive disorder does not include manic episodes.
Prejudice is an attitude, discrimination is a behavior — someone can hold a prejudiced attitude without acting on it, and vice versa.
Term
Press Enter or Space to flip the card. Left and right arrows move between cards. 1 marks it known, 2 marks it still learning.
Click or press Enter to flip · Rate yourself to track weak cards
Browse all 80 flashcards as a list

Unit 1: History & Approaches

Wilhelm Wundt
Founded the first formal psychology laboratory in Leipzig, Germany, in 1879, marking psychology's start as a science.
Structuralism
Edward Titchener's school that used introspection to break consciousness down into its most basic components.
Functionalism
William James's approach that studied the purpose (function) mental processes serve in helping organisms adapt.
Introspection
A research method in which trained observers report on their own inner thoughts and sensations.
Psychoanalytic perspective
Sigmund Freud's view that behavior is driven by unconscious conflicts, drives, and childhood experiences.
Behaviorism
The perspective of John B. Watson and B.F. Skinner that psychology should study only observable, measurable behavior.
Humanistic perspective
Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow's approach emphasizing free will, personal growth, and self-actualization.
Cognitive perspective
The approach that studies internal mental processes such as memory, thinking, problem-solving, and language.
Biological perspective
The approach that links behavior to genetics, brain structures, and the nervous system.
Sociocultural perspective
The approach examining how culture, ethnicity, and social context shape thought and behavior.

Unit 2: Research Methods

Scientific method
A process of inquiry involving observation, forming a hypothesis, testing it, analyzing data, and drawing conclusions.
Hypothesis
A specific, testable prediction about the relationship between variables.
Operational definition
A precise, measurable description of exactly how a variable will be manipulated or measured in a study.
Descriptive research
Methods such as case studies, surveys, and naturalistic observation that describe behavior without manipulating variables.
Case study
An in-depth investigation of one individual or small group, often used to study rare phenomena.
Naturalistic observation
Observing and recording behavior in a real-world setting without interfering.
Survey method
Gathering self-reported data through questionnaires or interviews, which can be biased by social desirability.
Correlational research
A method that measures the relationship between two variables but cannot establish that one causes the other.
Positive correlation
A relationship in which two variables increase or decrease together.
Negative correlation
A relationship in which one variable increases as the other decreases.

Unit 3: Biological Bases of Behavior

Neuron
The basic building block of the nervous system, specialized to receive and transmit electrical and chemical signals.
Dendrites
The branch-like extensions of a neuron that receive signals from other neurons.
Axon
The long fiber of a neuron that carries the electrical impulse, or action potential, away from the cell body.
Myelin sheath
The fatty layer that coats many axons and speeds up neural transmission.
Synapse
The tiny gap between neurons across which neurotransmitters are released to relay a signal.
Neurotransmitters
Chemical messengers such as dopamine, serotonin, acetylcholine, and GABA that carry signals across the synapse.
Dopamine
A neurotransmitter involved in reward and movement; abnormally low levels are linked to Parkinson's disease.
Serotonin
A neurotransmitter that regulates mood, hunger, and sleep; low levels are linked to depression.
Acetylcholine
A neurotransmitter involved in muscle movement and memory; its loss is linked to Alzheimer's disease.
Central nervous system
The division of the nervous system made up of the brain and spinal cord.

Unit 4: Sensation & Perception

Sensation
The process by which sensory receptors detect physical stimuli from the environment.
Perception
The process of organizing and interpreting sensory information so that it becomes meaningful.
Absolute threshold
The minimum intensity of a stimulus needed to detect it 50 percent of the time.
Difference threshold (JND)
The smallest detectable difference between two stimuli, also called the just noticeable difference.
Weber's Law
The principle that the difference threshold is a constant proportion of the original stimulus's intensity.
Signal detection theory
The theory that detecting a stimulus depends on both its intensity and psychological factors like expectation and motivation.
Sensory adaptation
Diminished sensitivity to a stimulus following constant, unchanging exposure to it.
Transduction
The conversion of physical stimulus energy into neural impulses the brain can interpret.
Retina
The light-sensitive inner surface of the eye containing the receptor cells rods and cones.
Rods
Retinal receptors that detect black, white, and gray and function best in low light.

Unit 5: Learning & Memory

Classical conditioning
Ivan Pavlov's form of learning in which a neutral stimulus comes to trigger a response through repeated association.
Unconditioned stimulus/response
A stimulus that naturally and automatically triggers a response without any prior learning.
Conditioned stimulus/response
A previously neutral stimulus that, after association, comes to trigger a learned response.
Extinction
The weakening and eventual disappearance of a conditioned response when it is no longer reinforced.
Spontaneous recovery
The reappearance of a weakened conditioned response after a rest period following extinction.
Stimulus generalization
Responding in the same way to stimuli that resemble the original conditioned stimulus.
Stimulus discrimination
Learning to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and other similar stimuli that do not signal the same outcome.
Operant conditioning
B.F. Skinner's form of learning in which behavior is strengthened or weakened by its consequences.
Positive reinforcement
Adding a pleasant stimulus after a behavior in order to increase that behavior.
Negative reinforcement
Removing an unpleasant stimulus after a behavior in order to increase that behavior.

Unit 6: Development

Developmental psychology
The study of physical, cognitive, and social change across the human lifespan.
Jean Piaget
The theorist who proposed that children move through four stages of cognitive development.
Sensorimotor stage
Piaget's first stage (birth to about 2), during which infants develop object permanence.
Preoperational stage
Piaget's second stage (about 2 to 7), marked by symbolic thought, egocentrism, and lack of conservation.
Concrete operational stage
Piaget's third stage (about 7 to 11), when children think logically about concrete events and grasp conservation.
Formal operational stage
Piaget's fourth stage (about 12 and up), when abstract and hypothetical reasoning becomes possible.
Object permanence
The understanding that objects continue to exist even when they cannot be seen.
Conservation
The understanding that a quantity stays the same even when its shape or appearance changes.
Lev Vygotsky
The theorist who emphasized the sociocultural context of development and the zone of proximal development.
Zone of proximal development
Vygotsky's concept of the gap between what a learner can do alone and what they can do with guidance.

Unit 7: Personality Theories

Personality
An individual's characteristic and enduring pattern of thinking, feeling, and behaving.
Sigmund Freud
The founder of psychoanalytic theory, who held that personality is shaped by unconscious drives and conflicts.
Id
The personality component operating on the pleasure principle, seeking immediate gratification of basic urges.
Ego
The personality component operating on the reality principle, mediating between the id's urges and the real world.
Superego
The personality component representing internalized moral standards and ideals.
Defense mechanisms
Unconscious strategies, such as repression, denial, and projection, that the ego uses to reduce anxiety.
Psychosexual stages
Freud's proposed stages (oral, anal, phallic, latency, genital) at which fixation can shape adult personality.
Carl Jung
A neo-Freudian who proposed the collective unconscious and universal symbols called archetypes.
Alfred Adler
A neo-Freudian who emphasized feelings of inferiority and the drive to strive for superiority.
Karen Horney
A neo-Freudian who challenged Freud's view of women and proposed the concept of basic anxiety.

Unit 8: Social Psychology & Disorders

Social psychology
The scientific study of how people's thoughts, feelings, and behaviors are influenced by others.
Attribution theory
The theory describing how people explain behavior as due to either dispositional or situational causes.
Fundamental attribution error
The tendency to overestimate personal traits and underestimate situational factors when judging others' behavior.
Conformity
Adjusting one's behavior or beliefs to match a group's norms, demonstrated in Solomon Asch's line experiments.
Obedience
Complying with the demands of an authority figure, famously studied in Stanley Milgram's shock experiments.
Social facilitation
The tendency to perform better on simple or well-learned tasks when in the presence of others.
Social loafing
The tendency to exert less effort on a group task than when working alone.
Groupthink
A group's desire for harmony that leads members to suppress dissent and make poor decisions.
Bystander effect
The tendency for individuals to be less likely to help a victim when other people are present.
Philip Zimbardo
Researcher of the Stanford Prison Experiment, which showed the powerful influence of assigned social roles.
Press 1–4 to answer · Enter for next

Unit 1: History & Approaches

History & Approaches: Foundations
This section covers 5 key ideas in history & approaches: Wilhelm Wundt, Structuralism, Functionalism, Introspection, Psychoanalytic perspective.
History & Approaches: Core Theories & Mechanisms
This section covers 5 key ideas in history & approaches: Behaviorism, Humanistic perspective, Cognitive perspective, Biological perspective, Sociocultural perspective.
History & Approaches: Key People & Contributions
This section covers 5 key ideas in history & approaches: Evolutionary perspective, Biopsychosocial model, Nature vs. nurture, Empiricism, Clinical psychologist.
History & Approaches: Processes in Depth
This section covers 5 key ideas in history & approaches: Psychiatrist, Basic vs. applied research, Gestalt psychology, Mary Whiton Calkins, Dorothea Dix.
History & Approaches: Applications & Distinctions
This section covers 2 key ideas in history & approaches: G. Stanley Hall, Eclectic approach.
Key fact
Wilhelm Wundt — founded the first formal psychology laboratory in Leipzig, Germany, in 1879, marking psychology's start as a science.
Key fact
Biopsychosocial model — an integrative model explaining behavior through the combined influence of biological, psychological, and social factors.
Key fact
Eclectic approach — combining insights from multiple psychological perspectives to more fully explain behavior.

Unit 2: Research Methods

Research Methods: Foundations
This section covers 5 key ideas in research methods: Scientific method, Hypothesis, Operational definition, Descriptive research, Case study.
Research Methods: Core Theories & Mechanisms
This section covers 5 key ideas in research methods: Naturalistic observation, Survey method, Correlational research, Positive correlation, Negative correlation.
Research Methods: Key People & Contributions
This section covers 5 key ideas in research methods: Experiment, Independent variable, Dependent variable, Experimental vs. control group, Random assignment.
Research Methods: Processes in Depth
This section covers 5 key ideas in research methods: Confounding variable, Placebo effect, Double-blind procedure, Sample vs. population, Random sampling.
Research Methods: Applications & Distinctions
This section covers 5 key ideas in research methods: Validity, Reliability, Informed consent, Debriefing, Statistical significance.
Key fact
Scientific method — a process of inquiry involving observation, forming a hypothesis, testing it, analyzing data, and drawing conclusions.
Key fact
Dependent variable — the outcome variable that is measured in an experiment.
Key fact
Statistical significance — a mathematical indication that a research result is unlikely to have occurred simply by chance.

Unit 3: Biological Bases of Behavior

Biological Bases of Behavior: Foundations
This section covers 5 key ideas in biological bases of behavior: Neuron, Dendrites, Axon, Myelin sheath, Synapse.
Biological Bases of Behavior: Core Theories & Mechanisms
This section covers 5 key ideas in biological bases of behavior: Neurotransmitters, Dopamine, Serotonin, Acetylcholine, Central nervous system.
Biological Bases of Behavior: Key People & Contributions
This section covers 5 key ideas in biological bases of behavior: Peripheral nervous system, Somatic nervous system, Autonomic nervous system, Sympathetic nervous system, Parasympathetic nervous system.
Biological Bases of Behavior: Processes in Depth
This section covers 5 key ideas in biological bases of behavior: Frontal lobe, Parietal lobe, Temporal lobe, Occipital lobe, Broca's area.
Biological Bases of Behavior: Applications & Distinctions
This section covers 5 key ideas in biological bases of behavior: Wernicke's area, Hippocampus, Amygdala, Hypothalamus, Thalamus.
Biological Bases of Behavior: Putting It Together
This section covers 5 key ideas in biological bases of behavior: Cerebellum, Corpus callosum, Endocrine system, Plasticity, Reflex arc.
Key fact
Neuron — the basic building block of the nervous system, specialized to receive and transmit electrical and chemical signals.
Key fact
Frontal lobe — the brain region responsible for reasoning, planning, decision-making, and voluntary movement; contains the motor cortex.
Key fact
Reflex arc — a simple, automatic response involving sensory neurons, sometimes interneurons, and motor neurons, often bypassing the brain.

Unit 4: Sensation & Perception

Sensation & Perception: Foundations
This section covers 4 key ideas in sensation & perception: Sensation, Perception, Absolute threshold, Difference threshold (JND).
Sensation & Perception: Core Theories & Mechanisms
This section covers 4 key ideas in sensation & perception: Weber's Law, Signal detection theory, Sensory adaptation, Transduction.
Sensation & Perception: Key People & Contributions
This section covers 4 key ideas in sensation & perception: Retina, Rods, Cones, Trichromatic theory.
Sensation & Perception: Processes in Depth
This section covers 4 key ideas in sensation & perception: Opponent-process theory, Cochlea, Place theory, Frequency theory.
Sensation & Perception: Applications & Distinctions
This section covers 4 key ideas in sensation & perception: Gate-control theory, Gestalt principles, Figure-ground, Depth perception.
Sensation & Perception: Putting It Together
This section covers 4 key ideas in sensation & perception: Perceptual constancy, Bottom-up processing, Top-down processing, Selective attention.
Key fact
Sensation — the process by which sensory receptors detect physical stimuli from the environment.
Key fact
Opponent-process theory — the theory that color is processed in opposing pairs (red-green, blue-yellow, black-white), explaining afterimages.
Key fact
Selective attention — the focusing of awareness on a single stimulus while filtering out others, as in the cocktail party effect.

Unit 5: Learning & Memory

Learning & Memory: Foundations
This section covers 5 key ideas in learning & memory: Classical conditioning, Unconditioned stimulus/response, Conditioned stimulus/response, Extinction, Spontaneous recovery.
Learning & Memory: Core Theories & Mechanisms
This section covers 5 key ideas in learning & memory: Stimulus generalization, Stimulus discrimination, Operant conditioning, Positive reinforcement, Negative reinforcement.
Learning & Memory: Key People & Contributions
This section covers 5 key ideas in learning & memory: Positive punishment, Negative punishment, Schedules of reinforcement, Shaping, Edward Thorndike.
Learning & Memory: Processes in Depth
This section covers 5 key ideas in learning & memory: Observational learning, Latent learning, Encoding, Storage, Retrieval.
Learning & Memory: Applications & Distinctions
This section covers 5 key ideas in learning & memory: Working memory, Chunking, Long-term potentiation, Explicit memory, Implicit memory.
Learning & Memory: Putting It Together
This section covers 2 key ideas in learning & memory: Serial position effect, Interference.
Key fact
Classical conditioning — Ivan Pavlov's form of learning in which a neutral stimulus comes to trigger a response through repeated association.
Key fact
Shaping — reinforcing successive approximations of a target behavior until the full behavior is learned.
Key fact
Interference — forgetting caused by competition from other memories, either proactive (old blocks new) or retroactive (new blocks old).

Unit 6: Development

Development: Foundations
This section covers 5 key ideas in development: Developmental psychology, Jean Piaget, Sensorimotor stage, Preoperational stage, Concrete operational stage.
Development: Core Theories & Mechanisms
This section covers 5 key ideas in development: Formal operational stage, Object permanence, Conservation, Lev Vygotsky, Zone of proximal development.
Development: Key People & Contributions
This section covers 5 key ideas in development: Erik Erikson, Identity vs. role confusion, Mary Ainsworth, Harry Harlow, Konrad Lorenz.
Development: Processes in Depth
This section covers 5 key ideas in development: Temperament, Lawrence Kohlberg, Authoritative parenting, Authoritarian parenting, Permissive parenting.
Development: Applications & Distinctions
This section covers 3 key ideas in development: Puberty, Teratogens, Cross-sectional vs. longitudinal design.
Key fact
Developmental psychology — the study of physical, cognitive, and social change across the human lifespan.
Key fact
Identity vs. role confusion — Erikson's adolescent stage in which the central task is forming a coherent sense of self.
Key fact
Cross-sectional vs. longitudinal design — comparing different age groups at one point in time versus following the same group over years.

Unit 7: Personality Theories

Personality Theories: Foundations
This section covers 4 key ideas in personality theories: Personality, Sigmund Freud, Id, Ego.
Personality Theories: Core Theories & Mechanisms
This section covers 4 key ideas in personality theories: Superego, Defense mechanisms, Psychosexual stages, Carl Jung.
Personality Theories: Key People & Contributions
This section covers 4 key ideas in personality theories: Alfred Adler, Karen Horney, Humanistic theory, Abraham Maslow.
Personality Theories: Processes in Depth
This section covers 4 key ideas in personality theories: Carl Rogers, Trait theory, Big Five (OCEAN), Social-cognitive theory.
Personality Theories: Applications & Distinctions
This section covers 3 key ideas in personality theories: Self-efficacy, Locus of control, Projective tests.
Key fact
Personality — an individual's characteristic and enduring pattern of thinking, feeling, and behaving.
Key fact
Karen Horney — a neo-Freudian who challenged Freud's view of women and proposed the concept of basic anxiety.
Key fact
Projective tests — personality assessments, like the Rorschach inkblot test, that use ambiguous stimuli to reveal unconscious feelings.

Unit 8: Social Psychology & Disorders

Social Psychology & Disorders: Foundations
This section covers 4 key ideas in social psychology & disorders: Social psychology, Attribution theory, Fundamental attribution error, Conformity.
Social Psychology & Disorders: Core Theories & Mechanisms
This section covers 4 key ideas in social psychology & disorders: Obedience, Social facilitation, Social loafing, Groupthink.
Social Psychology & Disorders: Key People & Contributions
This section covers 4 key ideas in social psychology & disorders: Bystander effect, Philip Zimbardo, Cognitive dissonance, Prejudice.
Social Psychology & Disorders: Processes in Depth
This section covers 4 key ideas in social psychology & disorders: Stereotype, Discrimination, In-group bias, Anxiety disorders.
Social Psychology & Disorders: Applications & Distinctions
This section covers 4 key ideas in social psychology & disorders: Phobia, Obsessive-compulsive disorder, Major depressive disorder, Bipolar disorder.
Social Psychology & Disorders: Putting It Together
This section covers 4 key ideas in social psychology & disorders: Schizophrenia, Dissociative identity disorder, Antisocial personality disorder, DSM-5.
Key fact
Social psychology — the scientific study of how people's thoughts, feelings, and behaviors are influenced by others.
Key fact
Stereotype — a generalized, oversimplified belief about the members of a group.
Key fact
DSM-5 — the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, the standard reference used to classify and diagnose mental disorders.
Common mistakes for each unit — read the mistake, then make sure you know why it's wrong.

Unit 1: History & Approaches

Watch out
Structuralism used introspection to analyze the elements of consciousness; functionalism, not structuralism, asked what mental processes are FOR.
Watch out
Psychology became a science with Wundt's 1879 lab, not with Freud's later psychoanalytic theory.
Watch out
Behaviorism studies only observable behavior — it does not deny mental processes exist, it simply argues they can't be studied scientifically.
Watch out
A psychiatrist can prescribe medication because they are a medical doctor; a clinical psychologist typically cannot.

Unit 2: Research Methods

Watch out
Correlation shows a relationship between variables but never proves causation — a third variable could explain both.
Watch out
The independent variable is what the researcher manipulates; the dependent variable is what gets measured, not the reverse.
Watch out
Random assignment (used in experiments to form groups) is not the same as random sampling (used to select participants from a population).
Watch out
A double-blind procedure hides the treatment from both participants AND researchers, not just participants.

Unit 3: Biological Bases of Behavior

Watch out
The sympathetic nervous system arouses the body ('fight or flight'); the parasympathetic system calms it ('rest and digest') — students often reverse these.
Watch out
Broca's area damage impairs speech PRODUCTION (halting speech); Wernicke's area damage impairs speech COMPREHENSION (fluent but meaningless speech).
Watch out
The hippocampus forms new long-term memories; the amygdala processes fear and emotion — these are often confused.
Watch out
Neurotransmitters cross the synapse between neurons; they do not travel down the axon (that's the electrical action potential).

Unit 4: Sensation & Perception

Watch out
Sensation is the raw detection of stimuli; perception is the brain organizing and interpreting that information — they are not the same step.
Watch out
Rods handle black-and-white, low-light vision; cones handle color and detail — students often swap these.
Watch out
Place theory best explains high-pitched sounds; frequency theory best explains low-pitched sounds.
Watch out
Top-down processing relies on expectations and prior knowledge; bottom-up processing builds perception from raw sensory data alone.

Unit 5: Learning & Memory

Watch out
Negative reinforcement REMOVES something unpleasant to INCREASE behavior — it is not the same as punishment, which decreases behavior.
Watch out
Classical conditioning pairs two stimuli to create an automatic response; operant conditioning uses consequences to shape voluntary behavior.
Watch out
Extinction is the weakening of a response, while spontaneous recovery is its temporary reappearance after a rest period.
Watch out
Explicit memories are conscious and effortful; implicit memories (like skills) operate without deliberate recollection.

Unit 6: Development

Watch out
Object permanence develops in the sensorimotor stage; conservation develops later, in the concrete operational stage — they are not interchangeable.
Watch out
Piaget focused on stages of cognitive development; Erikson focused on stages of psychosocial development — different domains entirely.
Watch out
Harlow's monkey studies emphasized contact comfort over feeding; this is often mistakenly attributed to Ainsworth, whose work was on attachment styles via the Strange Situation.
Watch out
Authoritative parenting (warm AND firm) is not the same as authoritarian parenting (firm but cold) — the terms are easy to mix up.

Unit 7: Personality Theories

Watch out
The id seeks immediate pleasure, the superego enforces morality, and the ego mediates reality between them — do not swap these roles.
Watch out
Humanistic theory emphasizes free will and growth, in direct contrast to the psychoanalytic emphasis on unconscious, deterministic drives.
Watch out
Self-efficacy (belief in one's ability to succeed) is distinct from self-esteem (overall sense of self-worth).
Watch out
Trait theories describe stable characteristics; they do not explain the underlying causes of personality the way psychoanalytic or humanistic theories attempt to.

Unit 8: Social Psychology & Disorders

Watch out
The fundamental attribution error involves OVERestimating personal traits and UNDERestimating situational factors, not the reverse.
Watch out
Conformity (Asch) involves matching group norms without direct orders; obedience (Milgram) involves following a direct command from an authority figure.
Watch out
Bipolar disorder involves alternating mania and depression; major depressive disorder does not include manic episodes.
Watch out
Prejudice is an attitude, discrimination is a behavior — someone can hold a prejudiced attitude without acting on it, and vice versa.