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Basic Greetings

French greetings change with time of day and formality. Getting the right register matters as much as the words themselves.
  • Bonjour = hello/good day (used until evening); Bonsoir = good evening
  • Salut = hi/bye (informal, use with friends and family only)
  • Au revoir = goodbye (all situations); À bientôt = see you soon; À demain = see you tomorrow
  • Comment allez-vous ? (formal) vs Comment vas-tu ? / Ça va ? (informal) = How are you?
  • Ça va bien, merci = I'm doing well, thanks; Comme ci, comme ça = so-so
  • Enchanté(e) = pleased to meet you, used right after an introduction

Tu vs Vous

French has two words for 'you', and choosing the wrong one is a real social error, not just a grammar point.
  • Tu = informal 'you', singular — family, friends, children, peers
  • Vous = formal 'you' singular (strangers, elders, authority) AND always plural 'you'
  • When in doubt with an adult stranger, use vous
  • Vous is also used for a group even if all members are close friends
  • Switching from vous to tu (se tutoyer) usually happens by mutual invitation

The French Alphabet

The French alphabet has the same 26 letters as English but they are pronounced differently, which matters for spelling names aloud.
  • A (ah), B (bé), C (sé), D (dé), E (euh), F (ef), G (jé)
  • H (ash) — always silent at the start of a word, e.g. 'hôtel'
  • I (i), J (ji), K (ka), L (el), M (em), N (en)
  • O (o), P (pé), Q (ku), R (er), S (es), T (té)
  • U (u), V (vé), W (double-vé), X (iks), Y (i grec), Z (zed)

Accents & Special Characters

Accents are not decorative — they change pronunciation and sometimes meaning, and must be written correctly.
  • é = accent aigu (closed 'ay' sound), e.g. café, étudiant
  • è / ê = accent grave / circonflexe (open 'eh' sound), e.g. mère, fête
  • ç = cédille, makes 'c' sound like 's' before a, o, u — e.g. ça, français
  • ë / ï = tréma, shows two vowels are pronounced separately, e.g. Noël
  • a vs à: 'a' = has (from avoir); 'à' = to/at — the accent changes the meaning

Numbers 0–20

Numbers 0–20 are used constantly for ages, phone numbers, and quantities and must be memorized as irregular forms.
  • 0 zéro, 1 un, 2 deux, 3 trois, 4 quatre, 5 cinq
  • 6 six, 7 sept, 8 huit, 9 neuf, 10 dix
  • 11 onze, 12 douze, 13 treize, 14 quatorze, 15 quinze
  • 16 seize, 17 dix-sept, 18 dix-huit, 19 dix-neuf, 20 vingt
  • Final consonants of six, huit, dix are often dropped before a consonant sound (six livres → 'si livres')
Salut to a teacher or stranger, not Bonjour — Salut is informal and can sound rude to someone you don't know.
'Comment tu t'appelles' with vous — mixing tu and vous in the same sentence is inconsistent; pick one register.
Dropping accents when typing (cafe instead of café) changes correctness on exams even if pronunciation seems similar.
Pronouncing the h in 'huit' or 'hôtel' — French h is silent, not aspirated like English h.

Grammatical Gender

Every French noun is either masculine or feminine, even for objects with no natural gender, and this must be memorized with each word.
  • le livre (m) = the book; la table (f) = the table — gender is arbitrary for objects
  • Nouns ending in -e are often (not always) feminine: la chaise, la porte
  • Nouns ending in -tion, -sion, -té are almost always feminine: la nation, la liberté
  • Nouns ending in -eau, -age, -isme are usually masculine: le bureau, le fromage
  • Always learn a noun WITH its article (le/la) rather than the noun alone

Definite Articles: le, la, l', les

Definite articles ('the') agree in gender and number with the noun and contract before vowel sounds.
  • le = masculine singular: le garçon, le stylo
  • la = feminine singular: la fille, la maison
  • l' = before any singular noun starting with a vowel or mute h: l'ami, l'homme
  • les = plural for both genders: les garçons, les filles
  • Definite articles are used for specific things, general categories, and likes/dislikes (j'aime les chats)

Indefinite Articles: un, une, des

Indefinite articles ('a/an/some') introduce a non-specific noun and also agree in gender and number.
  • un = a/an (masculine): un livre, un stylo
  • une = a/an (feminine): une table, une pomme
  • des = some (plural, both genders): des livres, des pommes
  • In negative sentences, un/une/des become 'de' (or 'd'' before a vowel): j'ai un chien → je n'ai pas de chien
  • Des is often omitted in English ('I have books') but is required in French (j'ai des livres)

Forming Plurals

Most French nouns form the plural by adding -s, but common exceptions must be memorized.
  • Regular: le livre → les livres (add -s, usually silent)
  • Nouns ending in -s, -x, -z stay the same: le fils → les fils; la voix → les voix
  • Nouns ending in -eau, -eu add -x: le bureau → les bureaux; le jeu → les jeux
  • Most nouns ending in -al change to -aux: le journal → les journaux
  • The article changes to show plural even when the noun's sound doesn't: le chat → les chats

Contractions with à and de

The prepositions à (to/at) and de (of/from) contract with the masculine and plural definite articles.
  • à + le = au: je vais au cinéma (not 'à le')
  • à + les = aux: je parle aux étudiants
  • de + le = du: le livre du professeur (not 'de le')
  • de + les = des: la voiture des parents
  • à + la and à + l' do NOT contract: à la piscine, à l'école
'la programme' instead of 'le programme' — memorize gender per word, don't guess from English logic.
Saying 'à le cinéma' instead of 'au cinéma' — à+le must contract to au.
Forgetting 'des' in 'j'ai des amis' — English drops the article, French keeps it.
Using un/une after a negation ('je n'ai pas un stylo') instead of de: 'je n'ai pas de stylo'.

The -ER Verb Family

Over 90% of French verbs end in -er in the infinitive and follow one predictable conjugation pattern.
  • parler (to speak), aimer (to like/love), habiter (to live), travailler (to work)
  • manger (to eat), regarder (to watch/look at), écouter (to listen), donner (to give)
  • chercher (to look for), jouer (to play), étudier (to study), arriver (to arrive)
  • To conjugate: remove -er from the infinitive to get the stem (parl-, aim-)
  • Add the ending that matches the subject pronoun to the stem

Present Tense Endings

The six present-tense endings for -er verbs attach to the stem and must be memorized as a set.
  • je parle, tu parles, il/elle/on parle (endings -e, -es, -e all sound the same)
  • nous parlons, vous parlez, ils/elles parlent
  • -ent (ils/elles) is silent — 'ils parlent' sounds just like 'il parle'
  • -ons (nous) and -ez (vous) are the only endings that are clearly pronounced
  • je → j' before a vowel sound: j'aime, j'habite, j'écoute

Negation with ne...pas

To make a verb negative, French wraps it in two parts placed around the conjugated verb.
  • ne + verb + pas: je ne parle pas (I do not speak)
  • ne becomes n' before a vowel sound: je n'aime pas, il n'habite pas
  • Both ne and pas are required — dropping ne is only acceptable in very casual spoken French
  • Other negations follow the same pattern: ne...jamais (never), ne...plus (no longer)
  • Word order: subject + ne + verb + pas + rest of sentence

Spelling-Change -ER Verbs

A few common -er verbs need a small spelling tweak in certain forms to preserve pronunciation.
  • manger (to eat) adds an -e before -ons: nous mangeons (keeps the soft 'j' sound)
  • commencer (to begin) changes c to ç before -ons: nous commençons
  • acheter (to buy) adds a grave accent in most forms: j'achète, but nous achetons
  • préférer (to prefer) changes é to è in most forms: je préfère, but nous préférons
  • appeler (to call) doubles the l in most forms: j'appelle, but nous appelons

Common Uses & Time Expressions

The present tense in French covers more ground than in English, including some ongoing and near-future actions.
  • Je parle can mean 'I speak', 'I am speaking', or 'I do speak' — one form, three English meanings
  • aujourd'hui (today), maintenant (now), souvent (often), toujours (always)
  • adorer (to adore) and détester (to hate) follow the same -er pattern
  • aimer + infinitive: j'aime danser (I like to dance)
  • Adverbs like souvent/toujours usually go right after the conjugated verb: je mange souvent
Pronouncing the -ent ending in 'ils parlent' — it is silent, don't add a syllable.
'Je ne aime pas' instead of 'je n'aime pas' — ne must elide to n' before a vowel.
'Nous mangons' instead of 'nous mangeons' — manger needs the extra e to keep the soft g sound.
Using the infinitive alone as a conjugated verb ('je parler') instead of conjugating: 'je parle'.

Être (to be)

Être is the most important irregular verb in French, used for identity, description, nationality, and profession.
  • je suis, tu es, il/elle/on est
  • nous sommes, vous êtes, ils/elles sont
  • Used for adjectives of description: elle est grande (she is tall)
  • Used for professions and nationalities without an article: il est professeur, elle est française
  • C'est vs il/elle est: c'est + noun (c'est un professeur), il/elle est + adjective alone (il est intelligent)

Avoir (to have)

Avoir is the second essential irregular verb, used for possession and many fixed expressions where English uses 'to be'.
  • j'ai, tu as, il/elle/on a
  • nous avons, vous avez, ils/elles ont
  • Possession: j'ai un chat (I have a cat)
  • Age: j'ai vingt ans (I am twenty — literally 'I have twenty years')
  • Fixed expressions: avoir faim (to be hungry), avoir soif (to be thirsty), avoir chaud/froid (to be hot/cold), avoir peur (to be afraid)

Il y a

Il y a is an invariable expression meaning 'there is/there are', built from il + y + a (from avoir).
  • Il y a un livre sur la table = There is a book on the table
  • Il y a des étudiants dans la salle = There are students in the room
  • Never changes form regardless of singular or plural: always 'il y a', never 'ils y ont'
  • Negative: il n'y a pas de + noun (il n'y a pas de pain = there isn't any bread)
  • Question form: Y a-t-il...? or Est-ce qu'il y a...?

Yes/No Questions

French has three ways to ask a yes/no question, ranging from casual to formal.
  • Rising intonation (informal, spoken): Tu parles français ? (just raise your voice at the end)
  • Est-ce que + statement (neutral, common): Est-ce que tu parles français ?
  • Inversion (formal/written): Parles-tu français ? (verb and subject pronoun swap, joined by a hyphen)
  • With a name/noun subject, inversion adds a pronoun: Marie parle-t-elle français ?
  • A -t- is inserted between two vowels in inversion: Parle-t-il ? (not 'Parle-il')

Information Questions

Question words replace the missing information and usually come first in the sentence.
  • Qui = who: Qui est-ce ? (Who is it?)
  • Que/Qu'est-ce que = what: Qu'est-ce que tu fais ? (What are you doing?)
  • Où = where: Où habites-tu ?
  • Quand = when; Pourquoi = why; Comment = how; Combien (de) = how much/many
  • Quel(le)(s) = which/what, agrees with the noun: Quelle heure est-il ? (What time is it?)
'Je suis 20 ans' instead of 'j'ai 20 ans' — age uses avoir, not être.
'Il est un professeur' instead of 'il est professeur' or 'c'est un professeur' — no article after il/elle est + profession.
'Ils y ont des livres' instead of 'il y a des livres' — il y a never conjugates to agree with the noun.
Forgetting the -t- in inversion: 'Parle-il' instead of 'Parle-t-il'.

Gender Agreement

French adjectives must match the gender of the noun they describe, usually by adding -e for the feminine form.
  • Regular pattern: add -e for feminine — grand → grande, petit → petite, intelligent → intelligente
  • Adjectives already ending in -e don't change: un homme rouge → une femme rouge
  • -eux → -euse: heureux → heureuse (happy); -f → -ve: actif → active
  • -on/-en double the consonant + e: bon → bonne, italien → italienne
  • Some are irregular and must be memorized: beau → belle, nouveau → nouvelle, vieux → vieille

Number Agreement

Adjectives also agree in number, usually by adding -s for the plural, on top of gender agreement.
  • Regular: grand → grands (m. pl.), grande → grandes (f. pl.)
  • Adjectives ending in -s or -x don't change in the masculine plural: un garçon français → des garçons français
  • -eau → -eaux in the masculine plural: un beau tableau → de beaux tableaux
  • Agreement is four-way: masc. sing., fem. sing., masc. pl., fem. pl. (petit, petite, petits, petites)
  • A mixed-gender group of nouns takes the masculine plural adjective

Adjective Position

Most French adjectives follow the noun, but a short list of common ones come before it — this must be memorized.
  • Most descriptive adjectives follow the noun: une voiture rouge, un livre intéressant
  • BAGS adjectives come before the noun: Beauty, Age, Goodness, Size
  • Beauty/Goodness: beau (beautiful), joli (pretty), bon (good), mauvais (bad)
  • Age/Size: jeune (young), vieux (old), nouveau (new), grand (big/tall), petit (small), gros (fat)
  • Examples: une belle maison, un jeune homme, un bon livre, une petite table

C'est vs Il/Elle est

French uses two different structures to say 'he/she/it is' depending on what follows.
  • C'est + article + noun: c'est un livre, c'est une bonne idée
  • C'est + adjective (general comment): c'est intéressant, c'est difficile
  • Il/Elle est + adjective alone (describing a specific person/thing already mentioned): elle est grande
  • Il/Elle est + profession/nationality (no article): il est médecin, elle est canadienne
  • Ce sont (plural of c'est) + noun: ce sont mes amis

Common Descriptive Adjectives

A core set of adjectives lets you describe people, places, and things in almost any conversation.
  • grand/grande (tall/big), petit/petite (small), beau/belle (beautiful), joli/jolie (pretty)
  • intelligent(e), sympathique (nice/friendly), gentil/gentille (kind), drôle (funny)
  • content(e) (happy), triste (sad), fatigué(e) (tired), occupé(e) (busy)
  • difficile (difficult), facile (easy), intéressant(e), ennuyeux/ennuyeuse (boring)
  • Colors as adjectives agree too: une chemise bleue, des chaussures noires
'une voiture rouges' instead of 'une voiture rouge' — don't add -s just because it 'sounds descriptive'; agreement is grammatical, not decorative.
'un maison grand' instead of 'une grande maison' — grand is a BAGS adjective and must go before the noun.
'Il est un docteur' instead of 'il est docteur' or 'c'est un docteur' — mixing the two structures.
Forgetting irregular feminine forms: 'une belle' is correct but 'un beau homme' is wrong — it must be 'un bel homme' before a vowel sound.

Immediate Family Vocabulary

Family vocabulary is essential for talking about yourself and is tested constantly with possessive adjectives.
  • le père (father), la mère (mother), les parents (parents)
  • le frère (brother), la sœur (sister), le/la enfant (child)
  • le fils (son), la fille (daughter/girl — context tells you which)
  • le mari (husband), la femme (wife/woman — context tells you which)
  • les grands-parents, le grand-père, la grand-mère

Extended Family Vocabulary

Extended family terms build naturally from the immediate family words using compound patterns.
  • l'oncle (uncle), la tante (aunt)
  • le cousin, la cousine (cousin)
  • le neveu (nephew), la nièce (niece)
  • le beau-père (father-in-law/stepfather), la belle-mère (mother-in-law/stepmother)
  • les petits-enfants (grandchildren), le petit-fils (grandson), la petite-fille (granddaughter)

Possessive Adjectives: mon/ma/mes, ton/ta/tes

Possessive adjectives agree with the noun they describe (the thing owned), not with the owner's gender.
  • mon/ma/mes = my: mon père, ma mère, mes parents
  • ton/ta/tes = your (informal): ton frère, ta sœur, tes enfants
  • The form depends on the GENDER OF THE NOUN, not the speaker: 'my mother' is 'ma mère' regardless of who's speaking
  • mon (not ma) is used before a feminine noun starting with a vowel sound: mon amie (not 'ma amie')
  • Plural mes/tes is used for any plural noun regardless of gender

Possessive Adjectives: son/sa/ses, notre/votre/leur

The remaining possessive adjectives cover his/her, our, your (formal/plural), and their.
  • son/sa/ses = his/her/its — again agrees with the noun owned, not the owner's gender: son père can mean 'his father' OR 'her father'
  • notre/nos = our: notre maison, nos enfants (only two forms: singular and plural)
  • votre/vos = your (formal or plural): votre travail, vos amis
  • leur/leurs = their: leur chat, leurs chats
  • son ami (his/her friend, masc.) vs sa amie is wrong — use son amie before a feminine vowel-starting noun

Possession with de

Besides possessive adjectives, French shows ownership with 'de' + noun, since it has no apostrophe-s like English.
  • le livre de Marie = Marie's book (literally 'the book of Marie')
  • la voiture de mon père = my father's car
  • de + le = du, de + les = des (contractions still apply): le chien du voisin (the neighbor's dog)
  • There is no French equivalent of 's — always restructure with de
  • C'est le sac de qui ? = Whose bag is it?
'Sa mère' assumed to mean only 'her mother' — it can equally mean 'his mother'; only context tells you.
'Ma amie' instead of 'mon amie' — before a feminine vowel-starting noun, use mon even though the noun is feminine.
Writing 'Marie's book' as 'Marie's livre' — French has no apostrophe-s; say 'le livre de Marie'.
Confusing 'la fille' (daughter/girl) meaning based on missing context, and 'le fils' (son) — don't mix them up as gender pairs of the same word.

Everyday Foods & Drinks

Core food vocabulary lets you order, shop, and talk about meals — a high-frequency beginner topic.
  • le pain (bread), le fromage (cheese), les œufs (eggs), la viande (meat)
  • les légumes (vegetables), les fruits (fruit), le poisson (fish)
  • l'eau (water), le café (coffee), le thé (tea), le jus d'orange (orange juice), le vin (wine)
  • le petit-déjeuner (breakfast), le déjeuner (lunch), le dîner (dinner)
  • sucré (sweet), salé (salty/savory), délicieux/délicieuse (delicious)

The Partitive Article: du, de la, de l', des

The partitive article expresses 'some' of an uncountable or unspecified quantity, and is required where English often omits it.
  • du + masculine noun: je mange du pain (I eat/am eating some bread)
  • de la + feminine noun: je bois de la limonade
  • de l' + vowel-starting noun: je voudrais de l'eau
  • des + plural noun: je mange des légumes
  • In a negative sentence, all partitives become de/d': je ne mange pas de viande

Verb: Vouloir & Polite Requests

Vouloir (to want) is irregular and its conditional form 'voudrais' is the standard polite way to order or request something.
  • je veux, tu veux, il/elle/on veut, nous voulons, vous voulez, ils/elles veulent
  • Je voudrais... = I would like... (more polite than je veux for ordering)
  • Je voudrais un café, s'il vous plaît = I would like a coffee, please
  • vouloir + infinitive: je veux manger (I want to eat)
  • s'il vous plaît (formal) vs s'il te plaît (informal) = please

Ordering at a Café

Café culture is central to French daily life, and ordering food/drink follows set polite phrases.
  • Qu'est-ce que vous prenez ? = What will you have? (server's question)
  • Je prends un café crème = I'll have a coffee with cream (prendre = to take/have food)
  • L'addition, s'il vous plaît = The check, please
  • C'est combien ? / Ça coûte combien ? = How much is it?
  • un croissant, une baguette, un sandwich, une tarte, une crêpe are classic café/bakery items

Expressing Hunger, Thirst & Preferences

Talking about food naturally involves the avoir expressions for hunger/thirst and verbs of preference.
  • avoir faim (to be hungry), avoir soif (to be thirsty)
  • préférer + noun/infinitive: je préfère le thé (I prefer tea)
  • aimer/adorer/détester + le/la/les + food: j'adore le chocolat, je déteste les épinards
  • Manger and boire are the key verbs: manger (to eat, regular -er) and boire (to drink, irregular: je bois, nous buvons)
  • au restaurant, au café, à la boulangerie (à + la = à la, no contraction) are common location phrases
'Je mange pain' instead of 'je mange du pain' — the partitive article can't be dropped as it can in English.
'Je veux un café' at a counter instead of the more polite 'je voudrais un café, s'il vous plaît'.
'Je ne mange pas du fromage' instead of 'je ne mange pas de fromage' — partitive becomes de after negation.
Confusing manger (to eat) with the false-friend-sounding 'manager' — manger is a regular -er verb, not related in meaning.

Places in the City

Naming common locations lets you talk about your daily routine and ask for or give directions.
  • la banque (bank), la boulangerie (bakery), la pharmacie (pharmacy), le supermarché (supermarket)
  • la gare (train station), l'aéroport (airport), l'hôpital (hospital), l'école (school)
  • le musée (museum), l'église (church), la bibliothèque (library), le parc (park)
  • la poste (post office), le marché (market), la place (square), la rue (street)
  • le magasin (store), le cinéma (movie theater), la piscine (pool)

Aller (to go) & au/à la/à l'

Aller is the essential irregular verb for movement and combines with à + place to say where someone is going.
  • je vais, tu vas, il/elle/on va, nous allons, vous allez, ils/elles vont
  • aller + à + le = aller au: je vais au parc, je vais au musée
  • aller + à + la (no contraction): je vais à la banque, je vais à la piscine
  • aller + à + l' (no contraction, vowel start): je vais à l'école, je vais à l'hôpital
  • aller + à + les = aller aux: je vais aux toilettes

Location Prepositions

Prepositions of place describe exactly where something is relative to another location, essential for directions.
  • à côté de (next to), en face de (across from), près de (near), loin de (far from)
  • devant (in front of), derrière (behind), entre (between), sur (on), sous (under), dans (in/inside)
  • à droite (to/on the right), à gauche (to/on the left), tout droit (straight ahead)
  • à côté de + le = à côté du; près de + les = près des (de contracts here too)
  • au coin de (at/on the corner of): au coin de la rue

Asking for & Giving Directions

Direction-giving uses the imperative mood and a compact set of fixed phrases every beginner should know.
  • Où est... ? / Où se trouve... ? = Where is...?
  • Pour aller à..., s'il vous plaît ? = How do I get to..., please?
  • Imperative forms: tournez (turn, vous-form), continuez (continue), prenez (take)
  • Tournez à droite / Tournez à gauche = Turn right / Turn left
  • Continuez tout droit jusqu'à... = Continue straight until...

Talking About Distance & Transportation

Rounding out city vocabulary means being able to say how far something is and how you get there.
  • C'est loin ? / C'est près d'ici ? = Is it far? / Is it near here?
  • à pied (on foot), en bus (by bus), en voiture (by car), en métro (by subway), à vélo (by bike)
  • à + distance: c'est à cinq minutes (it's five minutes away)
  • prendre + transportation: je prends le métro (I take the subway)
  • Il faut + infinitive = it's necessary to / you have to: il faut tourner à gauche
'Je vais à le musée' instead of 'je vais au musée' — à+le must contract to au.
'à côté de le parc' instead of 'à côté du parc' — de+le contracts to du even inside longer prepositions.
Confusing à droite (to the right) with the adjective droit/droite (straight/right-hand) — tout droit means 'straight ahead', not 'all right'.
Using tu-form imperative (tourne) with a stranger when giving directions — use the vous-form (tournez) by default.
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Unit 1: Greetings & Alphabet

Bonjour
Hello / good day — used any time before evening.
Bonsoir
Good evening — used after dark.
Salut
Hi / bye — informal, use only with friends and family.
Au revoir
Goodbye — appropriate in any situation.
Enchanté(e)
Pleased to meet you — said after an introduction.
tu vs vous
tu = informal 'you' (singular, familiar); vous = formal singular or any plural 'you'.
Comment allez-vous ?
How are you? (formal)
l'alphabet
the alphabet — same 26 letters as English, pronounced differently (h is silent).
un accent (é, è, ê, ç)
a diacritical mark that changes pronunciation or meaning, never optional in spelling.
les nombres 0-20
zéro, un, deux, trois, quatre, cinq, six, sept, huit, neuf, dix, onze, douze, treize, quatorze, quinze, seize, dix-sept, dix-huit, dix-neuf, vingt.

Unit 2: Articles & Nouns

le / la / les
the (masc. sing. / fem. sing. / plural) — definite articles agreeing with the noun.
un / une / des
a, an, some (masc. sing. / fem. sing. / plural) — indefinite articles.
le genre (masculine/feminine)
every noun has a gender that must be memorized with the word, e.g. le livre, la table.
au (à + le)
required contraction: je vais au cinéma, never 'à le cinéma'.
du (de + le)
required contraction: le livre du professeur, never 'de le professeur'.
aux (à + les) / des (de + les)
plural contractions of à+les and de+les.
à la / à l'
never contract, unlike au and aux.
pluriel régulier
most nouns add -s for plural (silent): le livre → les livres.
exceptions au pluriel
-eau/-eu → -x (bureau→bureaux); -al → -aux (journal→journaux); -s/-x/-z unchanged.
de / d' après une négation
un/une/des become de/d' in a negative sentence: je n'ai pas de chien.

Unit 3: Regular -ER Verbs

parler
to speak — regular -er verb: je parle, nous parlons, ils parlent.
-e, -es, -e, -ons, -ez, -ent
the six present-tense endings for -er verbs, attached to the infinitive stem.
ne...pas
the basic negation structure wrapped around the conjugated verb: je ne parle pas.
manger (nous mangeons)
spelling-change verb: keeps an extra -e before -ons to preserve the soft g sound.
commencer (nous commençons)
spelling-change verb: c becomes ç before -ons to preserve the soft c sound.
préférer (je préfère / nous préférons)
é changes to è in all forms except nous/vous.
acheter (j'achète / nous achetons)
adds a grave accent in all forms except nous/vous.
aimer + infinitif
aimer followed directly by an infinitive: j'aime danser (I like to dance).
souvent / toujours
often / always — adverbs usually placed right after the conjugated verb.
j'aime, j'habite, j'écoute
je elides to j' before a verb starting with a vowel sound.

Unit 4: Être, Avoir & Questions

être (je suis, tu es, il est, nous sommes, vous êtes, ils sont)
to be — irregular, used for identity, description, profession, nationality.
avoir (j'ai, tu as, il a, nous avons, vous avez, ils ont)
to have — irregular, used for possession, age, and physical-state expressions.
avoir faim / soif / chaud / froid / peur
to be hungry / thirsty / hot / cold / afraid — avoir expressions, not être.
il y a
there is / there are — invariable, built from il + y + a.
il n'y a pas de
there isn't/aren't any — negative of il y a.
Est-ce que...?
neutral way to form a yes/no question by adding this phrase before a statement.
inversion (Parles-tu ?)
formal question form: verb and subject pronoun swap and hyphenate.
c'est vs il/elle est
c'est + article + noun; il/elle est + adjective or bare profession/nationality.
qui / que / où / quand / pourquoi / comment
who / what / where / when / why / how — information question words.
quel / quelle / quels / quelles
which/what — agrees in gender and number with the noun it modifies.

Unit 5: Adjectives & Description

grand / grande / grands / grandes
big/tall — regular adjective agreement pattern, and a BAGS adjective (placed before the noun).
beau / belle / beaux / belles
beautiful — irregular; bel is used before a masc. vowel-starting noun (un bel homme).
BAGS adjectives
Beauty, Age, Goodness, Size — the short list of adjective types placed BEFORE the noun.
c'est vs il/elle est
c'est + article + noun (c'est un livre); il/elle est + adjective/profession without article.
heureux / heureuse
happy — -eux adjectives change to -euse in the feminine.
actif / active
active — -f adjectives change to -ve in the feminine.
bon / bonne
good — -on adjectives double the consonant + e in the feminine, and bon is a BAGS adjective.
sympathique / gentil(le)
nice/friendly / kind — common personality adjectives.
une voiture rouge
a red car — colors and most descriptive adjectives follow the noun.
nouveau / nouvelle, vieux / vieille
new, old — irregular BAGS adjectives with special pre-vowel forms (nouvel, vieil).

Unit 6: Family & Possession

le père / la mère / les parents
father / mother / parents.
le frère / la sœur
brother / sister.
le fils / la fille
son / daughter (la fille also means 'girl').
l'oncle / la tante / le cousin / la cousine
uncle / aunt / male cousin / female cousin.
les grands-parents
grandparents — le grand-père, la grand-mère.
mon / ma / mes
my — agrees with the noun possessed, not the speaker; mon before a feminine vowel-starting noun.
son / sa / ses
his/her/its — agrees with the noun owned; can mean 'his' OR 'her' depending on context.
notre / nos, votre / vos, leur / leurs
our, your (formal/plural), their — singular/plural possessive pairs.
le livre de Marie
Marie's book — French uses noun + de + owner instead of possessive 's.
le beau-père / la belle-mère
father-in-law or stepfather / mother-in-law or stepmother.

Unit 7: Food & Café Culture

du / de la / de l' / des
some — partitive articles for masc./fem./vowel-starting/plural nouns.
je voudrais...
I would like... — the polite conditional form of vouloir, used for ordering.
Qu'est-ce que vous prenez ?
What will you have? — typical server question at a café/restaurant.
L'addition, s'il vous plaît.
The check, please.
boire (je bois, nous buvons, ils boivent)
to drink — irregular verb.
avoir faim / avoir soif
to be hungry / to be thirsty.
le petit-déjeuner / le déjeuner / le dîner
breakfast / lunch / dinner.
un croissant, une baguette, une tarte
classic French bakery items: a croissant, a baguette, a pie/tart.
sucré / salé
sweet / salty (savory).
ne...pas de
after negation, du/de la/des collapse to de: je ne mange pas de viande.

Unit 8: City Places & Directions

aller (je vais, tu vas, il va, nous allons, vous allez, ils vont)
to go — irregular verb, combines with à for destinations.
au / à la / à l' / aux
to the (masc./fem./vowel-starting/plural) — au and aux contract, à la and à l' never do.
à côté de / en face de / près de / loin de
next to / across from / near / far from — location prepositions, contract with le/les (du, des).
devant / derrière / entre / sur / sous / dans
in front of / behind / between / on / under / in.
à droite / à gauche / tout droit
to the right / to the left / straight ahead.
Pour aller à..., s'il vous plaît ?
How do I get to..., please? — polite way to ask for directions.
tournez / continuez / prenez
turn / continue / take — vous-form imperatives used in giving directions.
à pied / en bus / en voiture / en métro / à vélo
on foot / by bus / by car / by subway / by bike.
la banque, la boulangerie, la pharmacie, le supermarché
bank, bakery, pharmacy, supermarket — everyday city places.
il faut + infinitif
it's necessary to / you have to — used often in giving directions (il faut tourner à gauche).
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Unit 1: Greetings & Alphabet

Basic Greetings
French greetings change with time of day and formality. Getting the right register matters as much as the words themselves.
Tu vs Vous
French has two words for 'you', and choosing the wrong one is a real social error, not just a grammar point.
The French Alphabet
The French alphabet has the same 26 letters as English but they are pronounced differently, which matters for spelling names aloud.
Accents & Special Characters
Accents are not decorative — they change pronunciation and sometimes meaning, and must be written correctly.
Numbers 0–20
Numbers 0–20 are used constantly for ages, phone numbers, and quantities and must be memorized as irregular forms.
Key fact
Bonjour is used any time until evening; switch to bonsoir once it gets dark.
Key fact
Vous is required for strangers/authority and is always used for groups, regardless of familiarity.
Key fact
The letter h is always silent in French, so 'les hôtels' liaisons as if h weren't there.
Key fact
Accents change pronunciation and meaning (a vs à, ou vs où) — never optional in spelling.

Unit 2: Articles & Nouns

Grammatical Gender
Every French noun is either masculine or feminine, even for objects with no natural gender, and this must be memorized with each word.
Definite Articles: le, la, l', les
Definite articles ('the') agree in gender and number with the noun and contract before vowel sounds.
Indefinite Articles: un, une, des
Indefinite articles ('a/an/some') introduce a non-specific noun and also agree in gender and number.
Forming Plurals
Most French nouns form the plural by adding -s, but common exceptions must be memorized.
Contractions with à and de
The prepositions à (to/at) and de (of/from) contract with the masculine and plural definite articles.
Key fact
Every noun has a gender (masculine or feminine) that must be memorized along with the word itself.
Key fact
Articles agree in gender and number: le/la/les and un/une/des.
Key fact
à + le → au and de + le → du are required contractions; à la, à l', de la, de l' never contract.
Key fact
After a negation, un/une/des become de/d' (except after être).

Unit 3: Regular -ER Verbs

The -ER Verb Family
Over 90% of French verbs end in -er in the infinitive and follow one predictable conjugation pattern.
Present Tense Endings
The six present-tense endings for -er verbs attach to the stem and must be memorized as a set.
Negation with ne...pas
To make a verb negative, French wraps it in two parts placed around the conjugated verb.
Spelling-Change -ER Verbs
A few common -er verbs need a small spelling tweak in certain forms to preserve pronunciation.
Common Uses & Time Expressions
The present tense in French covers more ground than in English, including some ongoing and near-future actions.
Key fact
-er verbs share one pattern: stem + -e, -es, -e, -ons, -ez, -ent.
Key fact
The ils/elles ending -ent is silent, so nous/vous forms carry the audible distinction.
Key fact
Negation surrounds the verb: ne (n') + verb + pas.
Key fact
manger, commencer, acheter, préférer, appeler need small spelling adjustments to keep their sound.

Unit 4: Être, Avoir & Questions

Être (to be)
Être is the most important irregular verb in French, used for identity, description, nationality, and profession.
Avoir (to have)
Avoir is the second essential irregular verb, used for possession and many fixed expressions where English uses 'to be'.
Il y a
Il y a is an invariable expression meaning 'there is/there are', built from il + y + a (from avoir).
Yes/No Questions
French has three ways to ask a yes/no question, ranging from casual to formal.
Information Questions
Question words replace the missing information and usually come first in the sentence.
Key fact
Être and avoir are irregular and must be memorized separately from -er verb patterns.
Key fact
Avoir is used where English uses 'to be' for age and physical states (faim, soif, chaud, froid, peur).
Key fact
Il y a is invariable — it never agrees with what follows.
Key fact
Question words (qui, que, où, quand, pourquoi, comment) go at the start of the sentence.

Unit 5: Adjectives & Description

Gender Agreement
French adjectives must match the gender of the noun they describe, usually by adding -e for the feminine form.
Number Agreement
Adjectives also agree in number, usually by adding -s for the plural, on top of gender agreement.
Adjective Position
Most French adjectives follow the noun, but a short list of common ones come before it — this must be memorized.
C'est vs Il/Elle est
French uses two different structures to say 'he/she/it is' depending on what follows.
Common Descriptive Adjectives
A core set of adjectives lets you describe people, places, and things in almost any conversation.
Key fact
Adjectives agree with the noun in both gender and number, giving four possible forms.
Key fact
Most adjectives follow the noun; BAGS adjectives (Beauty, Age, Goodness, Size) precede it.
Key fact
C'est is followed by an article + noun; il/elle est drops the article for professions/nationalities.
Key fact
Beau, nouveau, and vieux have a special form before a masculine noun starting with a vowel: bel, nouvel, vieil.

Unit 6: Family & Possession

Immediate Family Vocabulary
Family vocabulary is essential for talking about yourself and is tested constantly with possessive adjectives.
Extended Family Vocabulary
Extended family terms build naturally from the immediate family words using compound patterns.
Possessive Adjectives: mon/ma/mes, ton/ta/tes
Possessive adjectives agree with the noun they describe (the thing owned), not with the owner's gender.
Possessive Adjectives: son/sa/ses, notre/votre/leur
The remaining possessive adjectives cover his/her, our, your (formal/plural), and their.
Possession with de
Besides possessive adjectives, French shows ownership with 'de' + noun, since it has no apostrophe-s like English.
Key fact
Possessive adjectives (mon/ton/son etc.) agree with the noun possessed, not with the possessor's gender.
Key fact
Son/sa/ses can mean his OR her — context clarifies which.
Key fact
French has no possessive 's; use noun + de + owner instead.
Key fact
Mon/ton/son replace ma/ta/sa before a feminine noun starting with a vowel sound (mon amie, ton école).

Unit 7: Food & Café Culture

Everyday Foods & Drinks
Core food vocabulary lets you order, shop, and talk about meals — a high-frequency beginner topic.
The Partitive Article: du, de la, de l', des
The partitive article expresses 'some' of an uncountable or unspecified quantity, and is required where English often omits it.
Verb: Vouloir & Polite Requests
Vouloir (to want) is irregular and its conditional form 'voudrais' is the standard polite way to order or request something.
Ordering at a Café
Café culture is central to French daily life, and ordering food/drink follows set polite phrases.
Expressing Hunger, Thirst & Preferences
Talking about food naturally involves the avoir expressions for hunger/thirst and verbs of preference.
Key fact
The partitive article (du/de la/de l'/des) means 'some' and is required with food/drink even when English omits it.
Key fact
In negative sentences, du/de la/des collapse to de/d'.
Key fact
Je voudrais is the polite conditional form used for ordering, more courteous than je veux.
Key fact
Boire (to drink) is irregular: je bois, nous buvons, ils boivent.

Unit 8: City Places & Directions

Places in the City
Naming common locations lets you talk about your daily routine and ask for or give directions.
Aller (to go) & au/à la/à l'
Aller is the essential irregular verb for movement and combines with à + place to say where someone is going.
Location Prepositions
Prepositions of place describe exactly where something is relative to another location, essential for directions.
Asking for & Giving Directions
Direction-giving uses the imperative mood and a compact set of fixed phrases every beginner should know.
Talking About Distance & Transportation
Rounding out city vocabulary means being able to say how far something is and how you get there.
Key fact
Aller is irregular (vais/vas/va/allons/allez/vont) and combines with à for destinations.
Key fact
à + le → au and à + les → aux, but à + la and à + l' never contract.
Key fact
de-based prepositions (à côté de, près de, en face de) also contract: à côté du parc, près des magasins.
Key fact
Direction-giving uses the vous-form imperative: tournez, continuez, prenez.
Common mistakes for each unit — read the mistake, then make sure you know why it's wrong.

Unit 1: Greetings & Alphabet

Watch out
Salut to a teacher or stranger, not Bonjour — Salut is informal and can sound rude to someone you don't know.
Watch out
'Comment tu t'appelles' with vous — mixing tu and vous in the same sentence is inconsistent; pick one register.
Watch out
Dropping accents when typing (cafe instead of café) changes correctness on exams even if pronunciation seems similar.
Watch out
Pronouncing the h in 'huit' or 'hôtel' — French h is silent, not aspirated like English h.

Unit 2: Articles & Nouns

Watch out
'la programme' instead of 'le programme' — memorize gender per word, don't guess from English logic.
Watch out
Saying 'à le cinéma' instead of 'au cinéma' — à+le must contract to au.
Watch out
Forgetting 'des' in 'j'ai des amis' — English drops the article, French keeps it.
Watch out
Using un/une after a negation ('je n'ai pas un stylo') instead of de: 'je n'ai pas de stylo'.

Unit 3: Regular -ER Verbs

Watch out
Pronouncing the -ent ending in 'ils parlent' — it is silent, don't add a syllable.
Watch out
'Je ne aime pas' instead of 'je n'aime pas' — ne must elide to n' before a vowel.
Watch out
'Nous mangons' instead of 'nous mangeons' — manger needs the extra e to keep the soft g sound.
Watch out
Using the infinitive alone as a conjugated verb ('je parler') instead of conjugating: 'je parle'.

Unit 4: Être, Avoir & Questions

Watch out
'Je suis 20 ans' instead of 'j'ai 20 ans' — age uses avoir, not être.
Watch out
'Il est un professeur' instead of 'il est professeur' or 'c'est un professeur' — no article after il/elle est + profession.
Watch out
'Ils y ont des livres' instead of 'il y a des livres' — il y a never conjugates to agree with the noun.
Watch out
Forgetting the -t- in inversion: 'Parle-il' instead of 'Parle-t-il'.

Unit 5: Adjectives & Description

Watch out
'une voiture rouges' instead of 'une voiture rouge' — don't add -s just because it 'sounds descriptive'; agreement is grammatical, not decorative.
Watch out
'un maison grand' instead of 'une grande maison' — grand is a BAGS adjective and must go before the noun.
Watch out
'Il est un docteur' instead of 'il est docteur' or 'c'est un docteur' — mixing the two structures.
Watch out
Forgetting irregular feminine forms: 'une belle' is correct but 'un beau homme' is wrong — it must be 'un bel homme' before a vowel sound.

Unit 6: Family & Possession

Watch out
'Sa mère' assumed to mean only 'her mother' — it can equally mean 'his mother'; only context tells you.
Watch out
'Ma amie' instead of 'mon amie' — before a feminine vowel-starting noun, use mon even though the noun is feminine.
Watch out
Writing 'Marie's book' as 'Marie's livre' — French has no apostrophe-s; say 'le livre de Marie'.
Watch out
Confusing 'la fille' (daughter/girl) meaning based on missing context, and 'le fils' (son) — don't mix them up as gender pairs of the same word.

Unit 7: Food & Café Culture

Watch out
'Je mange pain' instead of 'je mange du pain' — the partitive article can't be dropped as it can in English.
Watch out
'Je veux un café' at a counter instead of the more polite 'je voudrais un café, s'il vous plaît'.
Watch out
'Je ne mange pas du fromage' instead of 'je ne mange pas de fromage' — partitive becomes de after negation.
Watch out
Confusing manger (to eat) with the false-friend-sounding 'manager' — manger is a regular -er verb, not related in meaning.

Unit 8: City Places & Directions

Watch out
'Je vais à le musée' instead of 'je vais au musée' — à+le must contract to au.
Watch out
'à côté de le parc' instead of 'à côté du parc' — de+le contracts to du even inside longer prepositions.
Watch out
Confusing à droite (to the right) with the adjective droit/droite (straight/right-hand) — tout droit means 'straight ahead', not 'all right'.
Watch out
Using tu-form imperative (tourne) with a stranger when giving directions — use the vous-form (tournez) by default.